{"id":259,"date":"2021-05-17T22:17:51","date_gmt":"2021-05-17T22:17:51","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/davidth\/?p=259"},"modified":"2022-11-07T09:34:02","modified_gmt":"2022-11-07T09:34:02","slug":"feminiskar-lagakenningar","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/davidth\/2021\/05\/17\/feminiskar-lagakenningar\/","title":{"rendered":"Fem\u00edn\u00edskar lagakenningar"},"content":{"rendered":"

Dr. jur. Dav\u00ed\u00f0 \u00de\u00f3r Bj\u00f6rgvinsson<\/strong><\/p>\n

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  1. Inngangur<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

    Vi\u00f0 hlj\u00f3tum a\u00f0 hafa veitt \u00fev\u00ed athygli a\u00f0 allar kenningar sem fjalla\u00f0 hefur veri\u00f0 um \u00ed \u00feessu n\u00e1mskei\u00f0i um lagakenningar hinga\u00f0 til eru eigna\u00f0ar k\u00f6rlum. Engar konur hafa komist a\u00f0. \u00deetta er me\u00f0 \u00f6\u00f0rum or\u00f0um samr\u00e6\u00f0a g\u00e1fumanna af kyni karla. Ekki \u00fearf a\u00f0 draga \u00ed efa a\u00f0 \u00feessir karlar allir hafa gefi\u00f0 s\u00e9r a\u00f0 sannleikurinn um e\u00f0li laga og r\u00e9ttar v\u00e6ri s\u00e1 sami fyrir alla viti borna einstaklinga, \u00f3h\u00e1\u00f0 kyni. Ennfremur, a\u00f0 \u00feeirra eigi\u00f0 kyn skipti engu m\u00e1li fyrir innihald kenninga \u00feeirra. \u00dea\u00f0 megi au\u00f0vita\u00f0 deila um hvort \u00fe\u00e6r eru r\u00e9ttar e\u00f0a rangar, en \u00fea\u00f0 hafi ekkert a\u00f0 gera me\u00f0 \u00fe\u00e1 sta\u00f0reynd a\u00f0 h\u00f6fundar \u00feeirra eru karlmenn. Margir kenningarsmi\u00f0ir fem\u00ednismans telja \u00e1 hinn b\u00f3ginn einmitt \u00feessa sta\u00f0reynd skipta miklu m\u00e1li fyrir inntak kenninganna.<\/p>\n

    Sumir h\u00f6fundar, einkum karlkyns, hef\u00f0u eflaust tilhneigingu til a\u00f0 segja a\u00f0 \u00f6fgar einkenndu suma \u00e1hangendur \u00feessara kenninga, og \u00feeir v\u00e6ru nokku\u00f0 fylgnir s\u00e9r.\u00a0 \u00dea\u00f0 er sennilega r\u00e9ttm\u00e6t a\u00f0finnsla a\u00f0 einhverju leyti og er \u00fea\u00f0 stundum mi\u00f0ur, vegna \u00feess a\u00f0 \u00f6fgar eru alltaf til \u00feess fallnar a\u00f0 kalla fram andst\u00f6\u00f0u, jafnvel vi\u00f0 \u00feau atri\u00f0i sem \u00fe\u00f3 \u00fearf ekki endilega a\u00f0 vera mikill \u00e1greiningur um.<\/p>\n

    \u00deeir sem leggja stunda \u00e1 fem\u00edn\u00edskar lagakenningar hafa l\u00e1ti\u00f0 sig margt var\u00f0a og \u00fe\u00e6r eru ekki bundnar vi\u00f0 hreinar kennilegar huglei\u00f0ingar, heldur s\u00e9r \u00feessa einnig sta\u00f0 \u00ed ranns\u00f3knum \u00ed refsir\u00e9tti, einkum \u00ed ranns\u00f3knum \u00e1 ofbeldisbrotum gagnvart konum og me\u00f0fer\u00f0 \u00feeirra \u00ed r\u00e9ttarkerfinu, svo sem nau\u00f0gunum, \u00ed fj\u00f6lskyldur\u00e9tti, samningar\u00e9tti, ska\u00f0ab\u00f3tar\u00e9tti, eignar\u00e9tti og \u00f6\u00f0rum svi\u00f0um. \u00deungmi\u00f0jan er a\u00f0 s\u00fdna fram \u00e1 a\u00f0 \u00feetta regluverk allt s\u00e9 m\u00f3ta\u00f0 af heimsmynd og reynslu karla, fremur en kvenna.<\/p>\n

    H\u00f6fundar og fr\u00e6\u00f0imenn \u00e1 svi\u00f0i fem\u00edn\u00edskra lagakenninga, sem flestir eru konur, m\u00e6la au\u00f0vita\u00f0 ekki einni r\u00f6ddu, ekki frekar en karlarnir.<\/p>\n

    \u00c1\u00f0ur en vi\u00f0 sko\u00f0um hvert afbrig\u00f0i fyrir sig n\u00e1nar m\u00e1 halda \u00fev\u00ed til haga a\u00f0 fem\u00edn\u00edskar lagakenningar feli \u00ed s\u00e9r sj\u00e1lfst\u00e6tt framlag a\u00f0 \u00fev\u00ed leyti a\u00f0 l\u00f6g\u00f0 er \u00e1hersla \u00e1 fem\u00edn\u00edsk sj\u00f3narmi\u00f0 \u00ed l\u00f6gfr\u00e6\u00f0ilegri umr\u00e6\u00f0u, sem fallast m\u00e1 \u00e1 a\u00f0 hafi ekki fengi\u00f0 miki\u00f0 r\u00fdmi \u00ed ritum eldri h\u00f6funda. \u00deeir eru yfirleitt karlmenn og eflaust eru hugmyndir \u00feeirra reistar \u00e1 heimsmynd karla, a\u00f0 svo miklu leyti sem h\u00fan er \u00f6nnur en kvenna, fremur en s\u00e9rstakt tillit hafi veri\u00f0 teki\u00f0 til fem\u00edn\u00edskra sj\u00f3narmi\u00f0a.<\/p>\n

    Helstu kenningarsmi\u00f0ir fem\u00edn\u00edskra lagakenninga eru konur og \u00fe\u00e6r eru einnig oft virkar \u00ed bar\u00e1ttu kvenna fyrir auknum r\u00e9ttindum og b\u00e6ttri st\u00f6\u00f0u \u00feeirra almennt. \u00deessi kenningarsmi\u00f0ir hafa ekki heldur reynt a\u00f0 leyna \u00fev\u00ed og \u00feeir gera ekki endilega kr\u00f6fu til \u00feess a\u00f0 fr\u00e6\u00f0i \u00feeirra s\u00e9u hlutlaus<\/em>. \u00deetta eru \u00ed reynd fr\u00e6\u00f0i sem \u00e6tla\u00f0 er a\u00f0 leggja tilteknum m\u00e1lsta\u00f0 fr\u00e6\u00f0ilegt li\u00f0. Fem\u00edn\u00edskar lagakenningar eru ekki einar \u00e1 b\u00e1ti a\u00f0 \u00feessu leyti. \u00deetta m\u00e1 einnig segja um a\u00f0rar lagakenningar, svo sem \u00fea\u00f0 sem hefur veri\u00f0 nefnt racial legal theory<\/em>, sem beinir athyglinni a\u00f0 mismunandi st\u00f6\u00f0u kyn\u00fe\u00e1tta \u00ed samf\u00e9lagi manna. Marx\u00edskar lagakenningar bera einnig \u00feetta einkenni a\u00f0 nokkru leyti. Sumpart er \u00e1 \u00fev\u00ed byggt a\u00f0 hlutleysi fr\u00e6\u00f0a e\u00f0a v\u00edsinda s\u00e9 t\u00e1ls\u00fdn. Engin fr\u00e6\u00f0ikenning s\u00e9 \u00ed reynd hlutlaus \u00feegar allt kemur til alls.<\/p>\n

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    1. Samkenni og grundv\u00f6llur fem\u00edn\u00edskra lagakenninga<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

      Fem\u00edn\u00edskar lagakenningar koma fram \u00ed mismunandi myndum.\u00a0 \u00de\u00f3 eru \u00fea\u00f0 \u00ferj\u00fa atri\u00f0i sem einkenna \u00feessar hugmyndir, sem \u00fe\u00f3 tengjast nokku\u00f0.<\/p>\n

      \u00cd fyrsta lagi er l\u00f6g\u00f0 \u00e1hersla \u00e1 f\u00e9lagslegan og\/e\u00f0a l\u00edfr\u00e6\u00f0ilegan e\u00f0lisl\u00e6gan mun karla og kvenna, \u00fe\u00f3tt ekki s\u00e9u full samm\u00e6li um \u00ed hverju s\u00e1 munur s\u00e9 f\u00f3lgin.<\/p>\n

      \u00cd \u00f6\u00f0ru lagi s\u00fa sko\u00f0un a\u00f0 \u00fej\u00f3\u00f0f\u00e9lagi\u00f0 allt, og \u00fear me\u00f0 r\u00e9ttarkerfi\u00f0, s\u00e9 reist \u00e1 fe\u00f0raveldi (patriarchy). Samf\u00e9lagi\u00f0 allt s\u00e9 \u00ed raun karlaveldi.<\/p>\n

      \u00cd \u00feri\u00f0ja lagi leitast \u00feeir sem a\u00f0hyllast fem\u00edn\u00edskar lagakenningar vi\u00f0 a\u00f0 sko\u00f0a og greina hlutverk laga \u00ed samf\u00e9laginu \u00fat fr\u00e1 \u00feeirri forsendu a\u00f0 l\u00f6gunum og r\u00e9ttindum \u00ed samf\u00e9laginu s\u00e9 \u00e6tla\u00f0 a\u00f0 byggja upp, vi\u00f0halda og treysta fe\u00f0raveldi\u00f0, \u00fe.e. treysta st\u00f6\u00f0u karla.<\/p>\n

      Me\u00f0 tveimur s\u00ed\u00f0arnefndu atri\u00f0unum er n\u00e1nar \u00e1tt vi\u00f0 samf\u00e9lagsskipan, hvort heldur horft er til stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1la, efnahagsm\u00e1la, r\u00e9ttarkerfisins e\u00f0a f\u00e9lagsskipunarinnar a\u00f0 \u00f6\u00f0ru leyti, s\u00e9 m\u00f3tu\u00f0 af k\u00f6rlum og \u00ed \u00fe\u00e1gu hagsmuna karla. \u00deessi skipan s\u00e9 \u00feess vegna almennt hagfelldari k\u00f6rlum en konum. Liti\u00f0 er \u00e1 hi\u00f0 karll\u00e6ga vi\u00f0mi\u00f0, karlmennskuna, sem vi\u00f0mi\u00f0 allra hluta. \u00cd\u00fer\u00f3ttir, hermennska, vi\u00f0skipti, starfsl\u00fdsingar og kr\u00f6fur um h\u00e6fni til a\u00f0 gegn st\u00f6rfum o.s.frv. mi\u00f0ast vi\u00f0 karla \u00fear sem liti\u00f0 er \u00e1 konur sem undantekningu, en \u00feeim beri \u00fe\u00f3 a\u00f0 eiga m\u00f6guleika e\u00f0a r\u00e9tt ef hinar karll\u00e6gu gildi e\u00f0a h\u00e6fniskr\u00f6fur eru uppfylltar. Fe\u00f0raveldi\u00f0 er a\u00f0 \u00e1liti fem\u00ednista samf\u00e9lagsskipan sem vir\u00f0ir karl\u00e6g gildi meira en kvenl\u00e6g og \u00fear me\u00f0 karla meira en konur.<\/p>\n

      \u00deegar kemur a\u00f0 l\u00f6gunum birtist fe\u00f0raveldi\u00f0 a\u00f0 \u00feeirra \u00e1liti \u00ed \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 l\u00f6gin mi\u00f0a fyrst og fremst vi\u00f0 reynslu og sj\u00f3narmi\u00f0 karla.\u00a0 \u00dev\u00ed er haldi\u00f0 fram a\u00f0 talsm\u00f6nnum fem\u00ednisma a\u00f0 l\u00f6gin hafi fyrst og fremst veri\u00f0 m\u00f3tu\u00f0 a\u00f0 hv\u00edtum menntu\u00f0um k\u00f6rlum sem b\u00faa vi\u00f0 traustan efnahag. \u00deessir karlar hafa m\u00f3ta\u00f0 l\u00f6gin, skilgreint \u00feau, t\u00falka\u00f0 \u00feau og gefi\u00f0 \u00feeim merkingu sem fer saman vi\u00f0 skilningi \u00feeirra \u00e1 heiminum og \u201e\u00f6\u00f0ru\u201c f\u00f3lki og tekur mi\u00f0 a\u00f0 st\u00f6\u00f0u \u00feeirra og l\u00edfsgildum. \u00de\u00f3tt l\u00f6gin s\u00e9u sni\u00f0in a\u00f0 fe\u00f0raveldi \u00fe\u00fd\u00f0i \u00fea\u00f0 ekki l\u00f6gin taki ekki til kvenna. M\u00f6rg laga\u00e1kv\u00e6\u00f0i fjalla um st\u00f6\u00f0u kvenna s\u00e9rstaklega, en \u00feau ganga \u00fat fr\u00e1 skilningi karla \u00e1 konum, skilningi \u00feeirra \u00e1 kvene\u00f0li, hugmyndum \u00feeirra um h\u00e6fileika kvenna, getu og reynslu. Refsi\u00e1kv\u00e6\u00f0i um nau\u00f0gun og anna\u00f0 ofbeldi gegn konum byggja \u00e1 skilningi karla \u00e1 \u00fev\u00ed hva\u00f0 er nau\u00f0ung, hva\u00f0 er ofbeldi o.s.frv. Einnig m\u00e1 nefna \u201efj\u00f6lskylduna\u201c. Hugtaki\u00f0 er skili\u00f0 a\u00f0 h\u00e6tti karla, \u00fe.e. karl og hans kona, sem er a\u00f0 einhverju leyti h\u00e1\u00f0 honum. \u00d6nnur fj\u00f6lskylduform eru vi\u00f0urkennd, en \u00feau eru samt talin \u201efr\u00e1vik\u201c fr\u00e1 \u00fev\u00ed sem er e\u00f0lilegt.<\/p>\n

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      1. Uppruni fem\u00edn\u00edskra lagakenninga<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

        Einn fyrsti kenningasmi\u00f0urinn sem telja m\u00e1 til fem\u00ednista er Mary Wollstonecraft (1959-1797), sbr. rit hennar A Vindication of the Rights of Women<\/em> fr\u00e1 1792.<\/em>(Sj\u00e1 n\u00fa \u00edslenska \u00fe\u00fd\u00f0ingu. Til varnar r\u00e9ttindum konunnar<\/em>. \u00de\u00fd\u00f0. G\u00edsli Magn\u00fasson. L\u00e6rd\u00f3msrit B\u00f3kmenntaf\u00e9lagsins 2016). Hugmyndir \u00fe\u00e6r sem fram koma \u00ed ritinu eru reistar \u00e1 \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 konur s\u00e9u skynsemisverur og \u00fear me\u00f0 f\u00e6rar um a\u00f0 bera borgaralegar skyldur, r\u00e9tt eins og karlmenn. Konur vir\u00f0ist eing\u00f6ngu standa karlm\u00f6nnum a\u00f0 baki vegna skorts \u00e1 menntun og t\u00e6kif\u00e6rum til jafns \u00e1 vi\u00f0 karla. Ekki gekk h\u00fan \u00fe\u00f3 svo langt a\u00f0 konur \u00e6ttu \u00fear me\u00f0 a\u00f0 nj\u00f3ta fullra p\u00f3lit\u00edskra r\u00e9ttinda \u00e1 vi\u00f0 karla. Fem\u00edn\u00edskar jafnr\u00e9ttishugmyndir a\u00f0 \u00fev\u00ed tagi komu s\u00ed\u00f0ar til, en almennum kosningar\u00e9ttur kvenna og kj\u00f6rgengi var ekki vi\u00f0urkenndur fyrr en l\u00f6ngu s\u00ed\u00f0ar (t.d. \u00e1ri\u00f0 1915 \u00e1 \u00cdslandi). Kenningar Wollstonecraft bera a\u00f0 sko\u00f0a sem andsvar vi\u00f0 drottnandi karll\u00e6gum vi\u00f0horfum til kvenna \u00e1 \u00feeim t\u00edma sem b\u00f3kin er skrifu\u00f0. Megin\u00e1hersla er \u00e1 konur sem skynsamar verur og \u00feeim beri r\u00e9ttur til menntunar til \u00feess a\u00f0 f\u00e1 noti\u00f0 s\u00edn \u00e1 s\u00ednum forsendum.<\/p>\n

        Annar fr\u00e6gur h\u00f6fundur, sem talinn er hafa haft g\u00edfurlega mikil \u00e1hrif fyrir \u00fer\u00f3un fem\u00edn\u00edskra hugmynda \u00e1 20. \u00f6ld er franski heimspekingurinn og rith\u00f6fundurinn Simon de Beauvoir, einkum me\u00f0 riti s\u00ednu Hitt kyni\u00f0 (e. the Second sex, f.<\/em>\u00a0 Le deuxi\u00e8me sexe<\/em>).<\/p>\n

        B\u00f3kin var miki\u00f0 brautry\u00f0jendaverk \u00e1 svi\u00f0i fem\u00ednisma og margir heimspekingar eru \u00e1 \u00feeirri sko\u00f0un a\u00f0 \u00feetta rit s\u00e9 merkast framlag hennar til heimspeki og lykilverk \u00e1 svi\u00f0i fem\u00ednisma. Riti\u00f0 f\u00e9kk b\u00e6\u00f0i \u00ed senn mj\u00f6g g\u00f3\u00f0ar vi\u00f0t\u00f6kur hj\u00e1 m\u00f6rgum \u00feegar \u00fea\u00f0 kom \u00fat, en l\u00edka \u00e1kafa gagnr\u00fdni fr\u00e1 \u00f6\u00f0rum. B\u00f3kin var svo umdeild a\u00f0 h\u00fan var sett \u00e1 lista yfir banna\u00f0ar b\u00e6kur \u00ed Vatikaninu \u00ed R\u00f3m. Telja margir a\u00f0 me\u00f0 \u00feessari ranns\u00f3kn sinni \u00e1 st\u00f6\u00f0u kvenna \u00ed s\u00f6gulegu og f\u00e9lagslegu lj\u00f3si hafi Beauvoir komi\u00f0 af sta\u00f0 fem\u00ednistahreyfingu samt\u00edmans og mun \u00feess vafalaust ver\u00f0a minnst sem eins af helstu byltingarritum 20. aldar. \u00dea\u00f0 hefur engu a\u00f0 s\u00ed\u00f0ur veri\u00f0 umdeilt og var Beauvoir me\u00f0al annars veri\u00f0 s\u00f6ku\u00f0 um karllegan hugsunarh\u00e1tt, sem ger\u00f0i l\u00edti\u00f0 \u00far m\u00f3\u00f0urhlutverkinu. Simon de Beauvoir f\u00f3r eigin lei\u00f0ir \u00ed l\u00edfi s\u00ednu og verki.<\/p>\n

        Megin\u00feema b\u00f3karinnar er s\u00fa hugmynd a\u00f0 konunni <\/em>hafi veri\u00f0 haldi\u00f0 \u00ed k\u00fagunarsambandi vi\u00f0 mann<\/em> me\u00f0 \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 skilgreina hana vera karlsins \u201ehinn\u201c (The man\u2018s other\u201c, eins og \u00fea\u00f0 er or\u00f0a\u00f0 \u00e1 ensku). Hitt kyni\u00f0. \u00deetta er m.a. byggt \u00e1 hugmynd sem kemur fram \u00ed heimspeki Hegel og Sartre (sem var fylginautur Beauvoir og eitt fr\u00e6gasta par 20. aldar) a\u00f0 sj\u00e1lf mannsins \u00fearfnist \u201eannars\u201c til a\u00f0 vera f\u00e6rt um a\u00f0 skilgreina sj\u00e1lft sig. Beauvoir telur a\u00f0 ranns\u00f3knir hennar hafi leitt \u00ed lj\u00f3s a\u00f0 konan s\u00e9 endurteki\u00f0 skilgreind af sj\u00e1lfi karla sem \u201ehinn\u201c e\u00f0a \u201ehitt kyni\u00f0\u201c<\/p>\n

        N\u00e1nar eru r\u00f6k hennar fyrir jafnr\u00e9tti \u00feessi: \u00cd fyrsta lagi reynir h\u00fan a\u00f0 s\u00fdna fram \u00e1 hvernig karll\u00e6g hugmyndafr\u00e6\u00f0i n\u00fdtir s\u00e9r mun kynjanna til a\u00f0 koma \u00e1 kerfi sem felur \u00ed s\u00e9r misr\u00e9tti. L\u00edffr\u00e6\u00f0ilegur munur kynjanna (barnsbur\u00f0ur, m\u00f3\u00f0urhlutverki\u00f0 o.s.frv.) er nota\u00f0 til a\u00f0 skilgreina tilteki\u00f0 hlutverk kvenna sem felur \u00ed s\u00e9r misr\u00e9tti. \u00c1 hinn b\u00f3ginn er \u00feessum mun milli kynjanna eytt me\u00f0 \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 l\u00edta \u00e1 karlinn sem hina eiginlegu mannlegu veru. Fyrirmyndin sem anna\u00f0 er mi\u00f0a\u00f0 vi\u00f0. Jafnr\u00e9ttishugmynd hennar byggir \u00e1 \u00e1herslu \u00e1 a\u00f0 kona og karl umgangist og l\u00edti hvort \u00e1 anna\u00f0 sem jafningja, en um lei\u00f0 a\u00f0 kynjamunurinn s\u00e9 ger\u00f0ur gildandi, \u00fe.e. hann s\u00e9 vi\u00f0urkenndur. Jafnr\u00e9tti er ekki h\u00e1\u00f0 \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 \u00feau s\u00e9u alveg eins og \u00fea\u00f0 er rangt a\u00f0 n\u00fdta s\u00e9r kynjamun til a\u00f0 beita konur misr\u00e9tti.<\/p>\n

        H\u00fan bendir t.d. \u00e1 a\u00f0 okkur s\u00e9 tamt a\u00f0 tala um konur sem veikara kyni\u00f0. Hver er grundv\u00f6llurinn a\u00f0 \u00feessari sta\u00f0h\u00e6fingu spyr h\u00fan?\u00a0 Hva\u00f0 styrkleikavi\u00f0mi\u00f0 eru notu\u00f0? Er \u00fea\u00f0 v\u00f6\u00f0vastyrkur? Me\u00f0al l\u00edkamsst\u00e6r\u00f0? Ef \u00feetta er nota\u00f0 m\u00e1 segja a\u00f0 karlar s\u00e9u sterkara kyni\u00f0. En hva\u00f0 me\u00f0 langl\u00edfi? Konur lifa a\u00f0 me\u00f0altali lengur en karlar. Er \u00fea\u00f0 ekki merki um a\u00f0 konur s\u00e9u \u00ed raun sterkara kyni\u00f0? \u00deetta s\u00fdnir a\u00f0 ni\u00f0ursta\u00f0an um h\u00e6fni og styrk einstaklings r\u00e6\u00f0st af \u00fev\u00ed vi\u00f0mi\u00f0i sem vi\u00f0 kj\u00f3sum a\u00f0 nota og val \u00e1 vi\u00f0mi\u00f0i er oft mj\u00f6g hlutdr\u00e6gt og vali\u00f0 til a\u00f0 f\u00e1 fram fyrirframgefna ni\u00f0urst\u00f6\u00f0u.<\/p>\n

        Ni\u00f0urst\u00f6\u00f0ur Beauvoir hefur or\u00f0i\u00f0 m\u00f6rgum fem\u00ednistum \u00edhugunarefni og h\u00fan er talin kristallast \u00ed setningunni: \u201ema\u00f0ur f\u00e6\u00f0ist ekki kona, heldur ver\u00f0ur kona.\u201c \u00dear me\u00f0 hafna\u00f0i Beauvoir r\u00edkjandi hugmyndum um me\u00f0f\u00e6tt e\u00f0a n\u00e1tt\u00farulegt s\u00e9re\u00f0li kvenna og lag\u00f0i grunninn a\u00f0 \u00feeirri sko\u00f0un a\u00f0 almennar hugmyndir um s\u00e9rkenni kvenna, \u00ed samanbur\u00f0i vi\u00f0 karla, \u00e6tti r\u00e6tur \u00ed menningarlegri og f\u00e9lagslegri m\u00f3tun, fremur en \u00ed e\u00f0lisl\u00e6gum l\u00edffr\u00e6\u00f0ilegum mun. Beauvoir bent \u00e1 a\u00f0 flestar skilgreiningar \u00e1 hugtakinu \u201ekona\u201c gangi \u00fat fr\u00e1 \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 konur s\u00e9u hluti \u00feess sem nefnt hefur veri\u00f0 tvenndarpari\u00f0, \u00fe.e. karl\/kona, \u00fear sem karlinn er settur yfir konuna. H\u00fan benti \u00e1 a\u00f0 karlmenn \u00feyrftu aldrei a\u00f0 spyrja sig: Hva\u00f0 er karl? \u00c1st\u00e6\u00f0an er s\u00fa a\u00f0 karlinn er hi\u00f0 e\u00f0lilega vi\u00f0mi\u00f0 en konan er fr\u00e1viki\u00f0 e\u00f0a \u201ehitt kyni\u00f0\u201c eins og Beauvoir or\u00f0a\u00f0i \u00fea\u00f0. \u00dea\u00f0 er hinn (the other). \u00deetta m\u00f3ta\u00f0i samf\u00e9lagslega st\u00f6\u00f0u kvenna \u00e1 allan h\u00e1tt og setti \u00fe\u00e6r sk\u00f6r l\u00e6gra en karla.<\/p>\n

        H\u00fan lag\u00f0i megin\u00e1herslu \u00e1 frelsi kvenna og a\u00f0 \u00fe\u00e6r nytu r\u00e9ttar til jafns vi\u00f0 karla. H\u00fan andm\u00e6lti \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 hlutskipti \u00feeirra sem \u201ehitt kyni\u00f0\u201c \u00e6tti a\u00f0 sker\u00f0a m\u00f6guleika \u00feeirra og t\u00e6kif\u00e6ri. Af \u00feeim s\u00f6kum andm\u00e6lti h\u00fan af \u00e1kafa hugmyndum um \u00e1skipa\u00f0a hlutverkaskiptingu kynjanna sem byggja \u00e1 l\u00edffr\u00e6\u00f0ilegu kyni. Me\u00f0 hinni fleygu setningu \u201ema\u00f0ur f\u00e6\u00f0ist ekki kona, heldur ver\u00f0ur kona\u201c leita\u00f0ist h\u00fan vi\u00f0 a\u00f0 s\u00fdna fram \u00e1 a\u00f0 kyn v\u00e6ri ekki \u201el\u00edffr\u00e6\u00f0ileg \u00f6rl\u00f6g\u201c sem d\u00e6mdu konur til \u00f3frelsis.<\/p>\n

        \u00de\u00f3tt fem\u00ednistar deili ekki allir sko\u00f0unum Beauvoir, m.a. var\u00f0andi e\u00f0lisl\u00e6gan mun karla og kvenna, og sumir telji hugmyndir hennar full karll\u00e6gar, var \u00fea\u00f0 me\u00f0al annars fyrir l\u00edf og h\u00f6fundarverk kvenna eins og Beauvoir a\u00f0 hugmyndin um jafnr\u00e9tti karla og kvenna var\u00f0 r\u00e1\u00f0andi \u00fe\u00e1ttur \u00ed fem\u00edn\u00edskum lagakenningum \u00e1 sj\u00f6unda og \u00e1ttunda \u00e1ratug s\u00ed\u00f0ustu aldar. \u201eRyksugan \u00e1 fullu, \u00e9tur alla drullu\u201c sungu\u00a0 Rau\u00f0sokkur \u00e1 \u00cdslandi til a\u00f0 m\u00f3tm\u00e6la \u00feessum hef\u00f0bundnu hugmyndum um st\u00f6\u00f0u kvenna. \u00de\u00e6r f\u00e9llust ekki \u00e1 a\u00f0 \u00fea\u00f0 v\u00e6ri \u00e1skapa\u00f0 hlutverk \u00feeirra a\u00f0 vera heima og ryksuga til b\u00faa karlinum hreint og notalegt heimili \u00feegar hann k\u00e6mi heim \u00far vinnunni!<\/p>\n

        Segja m\u00e1 a\u00f0 bar\u00e1tta fyrir jafnr\u00e9tti karla og kvenna h\u00e9r \u00e1 landi, sem og l\u00f6ggj\u00f6f og a\u00f0rar a\u00f0ger\u00f0ir \u00e1 \u00fev\u00ed svi\u00f0i s\u00e9u afrakstur \u00feessarar frj\u00e1lslyndu stefnu. M\u00e1 \u00fear nefna jafnr\u00e9ttisl\u00f6g, hj\u00faskaparl\u00f6g og \u00f6nnur l\u00f6ggj\u00f6f \u00e1 svi\u00f0i fj\u00f6lskyldur\u00e9ttar, vinnul\u00f6ggj\u00f6f, almannatryggingar o.s.frv. \u00dearf ekki anna\u00f0 er a\u00f0 sko\u00f0a allt \u00feetta regluverk til a\u00f0 sannf\u00e6ra sig um a\u00f0 \u00e1rangur ver\u00f0ur a\u00f0 teljast verulegur. Fer \u00fev\u00ed \u00fe\u00f3 fjarri allir s\u00e9u samm\u00e1la um a\u00f0 s\u00fa bar\u00e1tta og vi\u00f0leitni s\u00e9 reist \u00e1 r\u00e9ttum forsendum. Enda er \u00fea\u00f0 svo a\u00f0 fem\u00edn\u00edskar lagakenningar hafa s\u00ed\u00f0an \u00fer\u00f3ast \u00ed a\u00f0rar \u00e1ttir og jafnvel andst\u00e6\u00f0ar, \u00fe\u00f3tt margv\u00edsleg samkenni s\u00e9u \u00e1 \u00feeim.<\/p>\n

        Sem d\u00e6mi m\u00e1 nefna a\u00f0 hugtaki\u00f0 j\u00f6fnu\u00f0ur (jafnr\u00e9tti) karla og kvenna hefur or\u00f0i\u00f0 fem\u00edn\u00edskum lagakenningarsmi\u00f0um tilefni \u00e1greinings milli \u00feeirra sem a\u00f0hyllast svonefndar frj\u00e1lslyndar fem\u00edn\u00edskar lagakenningar og annarra fem\u00edn\u00edskra kenningasmi\u00f0a. \u00deeir s\u00ed\u00f0arnefndu telja hina hef\u00f0bundnu kr\u00f6fu um jafnr\u00e9tti kynjanna reist \u00e1 \u00f3kynbundinni hugmynd um hinn skynsama \u00fej\u00f3\u00f0f\u00e9lags\u00feegn sem \u00ed reynd horfi framhj\u00e1 \u00feeim f\u00e9lags- og l\u00edffr\u00e6\u00f0ilega mun sem s\u00e9 \u00e1 k\u00f6rlum og konum. \u00deessi e\u00f0lisl\u00e6gi munur \u00e1 k\u00f6rlum og konum dragi \u00ed reynd \u00far m\u00f6guleikum kvenna til a\u00f0 neyta p\u00f3lit\u00edskra r\u00e9ttinda til jafns \u00e1 vi\u00f0 karla, enda felist \u00ed \u00feeirri kr\u00f6fu a\u00f0 konur ver\u00f0i fullgildir me\u00f0limir \u00ed karlakl\u00fabbi, \u00fear sem \u00fe\u00e6r muni \u00e1vallt standa verr a\u00f0 v\u00edgi.<\/p>\n

        Greina m\u00e1 a.m.k. fj\u00f6gur mismunandi afbrig\u00f0i fem\u00edn\u00edskra lagakenninga \u00ed r\u00e9ttarheimspeki: frj\u00e1lslyndar kenningar (liberal), menningarlegar kenningar (cultural), r\u00f3tt\u00e6kar (radical) og s\u00ed\u00f0-modern\u00edskar (post-modernist).<\/p>\n

          \n
        1. Frj\u00e1lslyndar fem\u00edn\u00edskar kenningar<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

          \u00deetta afbrig\u00f0i fem\u00edn\u00edskra lagakenninga \u00e1 s\u00e9r lengsta s\u00f6gu, en \u00f6nnur afbrig\u00f0i eru s\u00ed\u00f0ar til komin. Vi\u00f0urkenning \u00e1 kosningar\u00e9tti og kj\u00f6rgengi kvenna \u00e1 s.h. 19. aldar og \u00e1 f.h. 20. aladar er afrakstur \u00feessara hugmynda, sem og s\u00ed\u00f0ar einkum um og eftir 1960 aukin vi\u00f0urkenning \u00e1 jafnr\u00e9tti karla og kvenna, sbr. l\u00f6ggj\u00f6f \u00e1 svi\u00f0um sem nefnd er h\u00e9r a\u00f0 ofan.<\/p>\n

          Grunnhugmynd frj\u00e1lslyndrar fem\u00edn\u00edskra kenninga er a\u00f0 leitast vi\u00f0 f\u00e1 \u00fea\u00f0 vi\u00f0urkennt a\u00f0 konur eigi a\u00f0 nj\u00f3ta sama r\u00e9ttar og karlar \u00e1 \u00f6llum svi\u00f0um, svo sem \u00e1 svi\u00f0i kosningar\u00e9ttar og \u00fe\u00e1ttt\u00f6ku \u00ed p\u00f3lit\u00edsku l\u00edfi, r\u00e9tt til menntunar, r\u00e9tt til starfa, r\u00e9tt til s\u00f6mu launa o.s.frv.<\/p>\n

          Segja m\u00e1 a\u00f0 \u00ed or\u00f0i hafi veri\u00f0 fallist \u00e1 \u00feessa sj\u00e1lfs\u00f6g\u00f0u kr\u00f6fu \u00ed Vestr\u00e6num l\u00fd\u00f0r\u00e6\u00f0isr\u00edkjum, \u00fe\u00f3tt v\u00ed\u00f0a skorti nokku\u00f0 \u00e1 \u00ed reynd, a\u00f0 margra mati, a\u00f0 fullur og vi\u00f0unandi \u00e1rangur hafi n\u00e1\u00f0st. \u00de\u00f3tt enn\u00fe\u00e1 s\u00e9 verk a\u00f0 vinna \u00e6ttu flestir a\u00f0 geta fallist \u00e1 a\u00f0 hinar frj\u00e1lslyndu kenningar hafi skila\u00f0 konum raunh\u00e6fum og mikilv\u00e6gum \u00e1rangri.<\/p>\n

          Sumir fylgismenn fem\u00edn\u00edskra lagakenninga telja \u00fe\u00f3 a\u00f0 \u00feessi \u00e1rangur hafi veri\u00f0 keyptur d\u00fdru ver\u00f0i, kannski full d\u00fdru ver\u00f0i. \u00deeir segja a\u00f0 megininntak hinna frj\u00e1lslyndu kenninga hafi veri\u00f0 a\u00f0 tryggja st\u00f6\u00f0u kvenna til jafns \u00e1 vi\u00f0 karla, \u00ed samf\u00e9lagi sem er karll\u00e6gt <\/em>\u00ed e\u00f0li s\u00ednu. Breytingar hafi \u00fev\u00ed tryggt konum jafnan r\u00e9tt \u00ed heimi karla. Hin karll\u00e6gu norm og vi\u00f0mi\u00f0anir eru eftir sem \u00e1\u00f0ur reglan. Ennfremur, me\u00f0 \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 mi\u00f0a a\u00f0 afn\u00e1mi s\u00fdnilegra birtingamynda \u00f3jafnrar st\u00f6\u00f0u kynjanna, hafa frj\u00e1lslyndar kenningar brug\u00f0ist me\u00f0 \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 sko\u00f0a ekki uppruna e\u00f0a r\u00e6tur \u00feessa \u00f3jafnr\u00e9ttis. Einkennin hafa veri\u00f0 afm\u00e1\u00f0, en meini\u00f0 hefur ekki veri\u00f0 l\u00e6kna\u00f0. Me\u00f0an svo er muni konur ekki nj\u00f3ta sannm\u00e6lis a\u00f0 fullu.<\/p>\n

          Eitt afbrig\u00f0i \u00feessarar hugmyndar mi\u00f0ar a\u00f0 \u00fev\u00ed for\u00f0ast \u00fe\u00e1\u00a0 gildru sem hinar frj\u00e1lslyndu kenningar hafi falli\u00f0 \u00ed,\u00a0 \u00fe.e. a\u00f0 koma konum \u00ed ra\u00f0ir \u201ehei\u00f0vi\u00f0ra og vir\u00f0ulegra karla\u201d.<\/p>\n

            \n
          1. Menningarlegar fem\u00edn\u00edskar lagakenningar<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

            Helsti kenningarsmi\u00f0ur hinna menningarlegu fem\u00edn\u00edsku kenninga \u00ed r\u00e9ttarheimspeki er s\u00e1lfr\u00e6\u00f0ingurinn Carol Gilligan (riti\u00f0: In a Different Voice<\/em>).<\/p>\n

            Kenningar hennar byggja \u00e1 \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 e\u00f0lisl\u00e6gur munur s\u00e9 \u00e1 kynjunum, og \u00ed heimi sem karlar r\u00e1\u00f0i, s\u00e9u hin kvenlegu sj\u00f3narmi\u00f0 \u00ed versta falli \u00f3\u00feekkt og \u00ed besta falli vanmetin.<\/p>\n

            \u00c1 skorti a\u00f0 \u00feau s\u00e9 vi\u00f0urkennd og metin a\u00f0 ver\u00f0leikum. Gilligan skilgreinir e\u00f0a au\u00f0kennir hin kvenl\u00e6gu sj\u00f3nami\u00f0 me\u00f0 v\u00edsan til umhyggju og pers\u00f3nutengsla (care and conectness), og s\u00fdn \u00feeirra \u00e1 si\u00f0fer\u00f0ileg markmi\u00f0 og \u00fearfir s\u00e9u a\u00f0rar en karla. Konur vilja tengjast \u00f6\u00f0rum og \u00f3ttast a\u00f0skilna\u00f0. Karlar leggja \u00e1herslu \u00e1 sj\u00e1lfst\u00e6\u00f0i og \u00f3ttast a\u00f0 \u00fea\u00f0 ver\u00f0i skert. \u00deeir sem a\u00f0hyllast \u00feessar kenningar vilja breyta stofnunum samf\u00e9lagsins til a\u00f0 tryggja a\u00f0 hinum s\u00e9rst\u00f6ku kvenl\u00e6gu sj\u00f3narmi\u00f0 heyrist og f\u00e1i brautargengi og \u00feau s\u00e9u metin a\u00f0 ver\u00f0leikum. Hi\u00f0 kvenl\u00e6ga sj\u00f3narmi\u00f0 einkennist af \u00e1herslu \u00e1 \u00fe\u00f6rf fyrir tilfinningalega n\u00e6ringu, umhyggjusemi og pers\u00f3nuleg tengsl. H\u00fan segir a\u00f0 \u00feetta s\u00e9u j\u00fa vissulega kvenl\u00e6g einkenni, \u00feau s\u00e9u sta\u00f0reynd og \u00feau beri a\u00f0 vir\u00f0a og taka beri tillit til \u00feeirra.<\/p>\n

            Vegna e\u00f0lis s\u00edns hafa konur a\u00f0ra s\u00fdn \u00e1 si\u00f0fer\u00f0ileg \u00farlausnarefni, sem birtist m.a. \u00ed a\u00f0fer\u00f0um vi\u00f0 \u00farlausn \u00e1greiningsefna.\u00a0 Drengir l\u00edta \u00e1 einstaklinga sem sj\u00e1lfst\u00e6\u00f0ar einingar og \u00ed s\u00e9rhverri deilu leita \u00feeir a\u00f0 reglunni sem \u00e1 vi\u00f0 um m\u00e1lefni\u00f0 til a\u00f0 sj\u00e1 hver r\u00e9ttur hvers og eins er. Drengir sj\u00e1 \u00feannig deilu sem bar\u00e1ttu andst\u00e6\u00f0ra p\u00f3la \u00fear sem annar hl\u00fdtur a\u00f0 hafa r\u00e9tt fyrir s\u00e9r en hinn rangt, og s\u00e1 fyrrnefndi fer me\u00f0 sigur. \u00deetta nefnir Gilligan si\u00f0fer\u00f0i r\u00e9ttinda. \u00c1 hinn b\u00f3ginn leita st\u00falkur ekki lausna sem byggjast \u00e1 r\u00e9ttindum, heldur \u00e1 a\u00f0 leita lausna sem vi\u00f0halda samb\u00f6ndum. St\u00falkur leita ekki a\u00f0 reglum til a\u00f0 leysa \u00e1greining, heldur s\u00e9rsni\u00f0inni lausn fyrir s\u00e9rhvert \u00e1litam\u00e1l. \u00de\u00e6r vilja leysa m\u00e1l \u00feannig a\u00f0 teki\u00f0 s\u00e9 tillit til beggja deilua\u00f0ila. \u00de\u00e6r hugsa \u00ed \u00fe\u00f6rfum og \u00e1byrg\u00f0 \u00e1 \u00f6\u00f0rum, en ekki \u00ed r\u00e9ttindum.<\/p>\n

            Gilligan telur a\u00f0 bar\u00e1tta kvenna fyrir vi\u00f0urkenningu eigi a\u00f0 sn\u00faast um a\u00f0 \u00feessir eiginleikar og \u00feetta e\u00f0li kvenna s\u00e9 meti\u00f0 af ver\u00f0leikum. \u00deetta er \u201e\u00f6nnur r\u00f6dd\u201c<\/p>\n

            Um \u00feessar hugmyndir er erfitt a\u00f0 alh\u00e6fa, en \u00fe\u00e6r vir\u00f0ast stundum vera nokku\u00f0 \u00f6fgakenndar.\u00a0 Einn kenningarsmi\u00f0urinn er Robin L. West., en h\u00fan er raunar af sumum talin vera \u00e1 m\u00f6rkum hinna menningarlegu kenninga og r\u00f3tt\u00e6kra fem\u00edn\u00edskra kenninga.<\/p>\n

            H\u00fan segir a\u00f0 heimsmynd karla s\u00e9 \u00ed grundvallaratri\u00f0um \u00f6nnur en kvenna, \u00fear sem karlar sj\u00e1i fyrir s\u00e9r heiminn sem bygg\u00f0an upp af a\u00f0skildum og sj\u00e1lfst\u00e6\u00f0um einstaklingum, \u00f6ndvert vi\u00f0 konur sem \u201eekki eru \u00ed e\u00f0li s\u00ednu, nau\u00f0synlega, \u00f3hj\u00e1kv\u00e6milega, alltaf og a\u00f0 eil\u00edfu a\u00f0skildar fr\u00e1 \u00f6\u00f0rum mannlegum verum, en eru \u00feess \u00ed sta\u00f0 \u201etengdar\u201d vi\u00f0 l\u00edfi\u00f0 og vi\u00f0 a\u00f0rar manneskjur.\u201d Nefnir h\u00fan ferns konar a\u00f0st\u00e6\u00f0ur s\u00e9rstaklega sem gera reynslu kvenna a\u00f0 \u00feessu leyti a\u00f0ra en karla, \u00fe.e. kynm\u00f6k (\u00fear sem konan tekur vi\u00f0 og umvefur), \u00feungun, m\u00e1na\u00f0arlegar bl\u00e6\u00f0ingar og brj\u00f3stagj\u00f6f.<\/p>\n

            Gallinn vi\u00f0 \u00feessa framsetningu er a\u00f0 margra mati n\u00e6sta auglj\u00f3s, en hann er s\u00e1 a\u00f0 millj\u00f3nir kvenna deila ekki \u00feessari reynslu \u00ed \u00f6llu tilfellum og sumar engu af \u00feessu. Fj\u00f6ldi kvenna eru \u00f3byrjur, af mismunandi \u00e1st\u00e6\u00f0um, sem eiga \u00feess aldrei kost a\u00f0 lifa \u00fe\u00e1 reynslu sem felst \u00ed \u00feungun. Annars eins fj\u00f6ldi tekur \u00fe\u00e1 me\u00f0vitu\u00f0 \u00e1kv\u00f6r\u00f0un a\u00f0 ver\u00f0a ekki \u00feunga\u00f0ar undir nokkrum kringumst\u00e6\u00f0um. Enn a\u00f0rar einfaldlega pipra og eru aldrei vi\u00f0 karlmann kenndar, hvort sem \u00feeim l\u00edkar betur e\u00f0a verr. \u00de\u00e1 er fj\u00f6ldi kvenna samkynhneig\u00f0ur og \u00e1 aldrei kynfer\u00f0islegt samneyti vi\u00f0 karla og hefur ekki \u00e1huga \u00e1 \u00fev\u00ed.\u00a0 \u00de\u00e1 m\u00e1 ekki gleyma \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 fj\u00f6ldi kvenna hefur ekki bl\u00e6\u00f0ingar af l\u00e6knisfr\u00e6\u00f0ilegum \u00e1st\u00e6\u00f0um og \u00ed \u00f6llu falli h\u00e6tta bl\u00e6\u00f0ingar \u00feegar \u00e1kve\u00f0num aldri er n\u00e1\u00f0. Og a\u00f0 s\u00ed\u00f0ustu, fj\u00f6lmargar konur anna\u00f0 hvort mj\u00f3lka ekki e\u00f0a \u00e1kve\u00f0a, af mismunandi \u00e1st\u00e6\u00f0um, a\u00f0 hafa b\u00f6rn s\u00edn ekki \u00e1 brj\u00f3sti, nema \u00fe\u00e1 kannski eins stutt og \u00fe\u00e6r telja \u00f3hj\u00e1kv\u00e6milegt.\u00a0 Spurt er hva\u00f0a sta\u00f0 eiga \u00feessar konur \u00ed hugmyndaheimi Robin West, e\u00f0a eru \u00feetta kannski ekki eiginlegar konur a\u00f0 hennar mati?<\/p>\n

            \u00cd stuttu m\u00e1li er erfitt a\u00f0 festa hendur \u00e1 \u00fev\u00ed sem telja m\u00e1 sameiginlega reynslu allra kvenna, sem greini \u00fe\u00e6r algj\u00f6rlega fr\u00e1 reynslu og hugmyndaheimi karla.<\/p>\n

              \n
            1. R\u00f3tt\u00e6kar fem\u00edn\u00edskar lagakenningar<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

              Hinar r\u00f3tt\u00e6ku fem\u00edn\u00edsku lagakenningar koma fram \u00ed \u00fdmsum myndum, en \u00e1herslan er \u00e1 a\u00f0 konur s\u00e9u s\u00e9rst\u00f6k st\u00e9tt sem b\u00fai vi\u00f0 yfirr\u00e1\u00f0 karla. Helsti talsma\u00f0ur sl\u00edkra kenninga er Chatarine MacKinnon.<\/p>\n

              \u00d6ll lagaleg yfirbygging samf\u00e9lagsins tryggir og festir \u00ed sessi yfirr\u00e1\u00f0 karla. \u00deungami\u00f0ja hinna r\u00f3tt\u00e6ku fem\u00edn\u00edsku lagakenninga er a\u00f0 uppr\u00e6ta mismunun kynjanna. \u00deetta \u00e1 ekki a\u00f0 gerast me\u00f0 \u00feeim h\u00e6tti a\u00f0 konur komist til metor\u00f0a og \u00e1hrifa \u00ed heimi karla, heldur ver\u00f0i a\u00f0 sko\u00f0a konur og st\u00f6\u00f0u \u00feeirra \u00e1 \u00feeirra eigin forsendum, en ekki forsendum karla.<\/p>\n

              Gengi\u00f0 er \u00fat fr\u00e1 \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 hin almenna og vi\u00f0tekna hugmynd um \u00fea\u00f0 hva\u00f0 felst \u00ed \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 vera kona s\u00e9 karll\u00e6g og hafi or\u00f0i\u00f0 til \u00ed hugmyndaheimi karla. Mismunur kynjanna sem talinn er vera, hvort sem aflei\u00f0ingar hans eru neikv\u00e6\u00f0ar e\u00f0a j\u00e1kv\u00e6\u00f0ar fyrir konur, er skilgreindur af k\u00f6rlum \u00ed krafti valds \u00feeirra.<\/p>\n

              Samkv\u00e6mt hinum karll\u00e6gu hugmyndum eru sumir eiginleikar tengdir k\u00f6rlum a\u00f0rir konum. A\u00f0sta\u00f0an er s\u00fa a\u00f0 samf\u00e9lagi\u00f0 almennt metur hina karll\u00e6gu eiginleika meira. Af \u00fev\u00ed lei\u00f0ir a\u00f0 fyrirframgefnar hugmyndir (karla) um karll\u00e6ga eiginleika annars vegar og kvenl\u00e6ga hins vegar lei\u00f0a til verri st\u00f6\u00f0u kvenna. Munur kynjanna s\u00e9 \u00feessi, sbr. F. Olsen Feminism and Critical Legal Theory<\/em> (1990):<\/p>\n