{"id":1057,"date":"2016-11-05T13:28:21","date_gmt":"2016-11-05T13:28:21","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/?page_id=1057"},"modified":"2017-08-25T12:18:47","modified_gmt":"2017-08-25T12:18:47","slug":"viii-thekking-og-samhengi","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/kennsla\/inngangur-ad-thekkingarfraedi\/kennsluaaetlun-2017\/viii-thekking-og-samhengi\/","title":{"rendered":"VIII: \u00deekking og samhengi"},"content":{"rendered":"<p><em>Samhengishyggja<\/em> (e. <em>contextualism<\/em>) er n\u00fdleg kenning \u00ed \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0i. \u00cd fj\u00f3r\u00f0a hlut n\u00e1mskei\u00f0sins (\u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ileg lokun) kynntumst vi\u00f0 kenningum Fred Dretske og Gail Stine um <em>vi\u00f0eigandi valkosti <\/em>(e.<em> relevant alternatives<\/em>). \u00deessi kenning er n\u00e1skyld samhengishyggjunni, en samkv\u00e6mt henni fer merking hugtaksins \u201e\u00feekking\u201c eftir samhenginu sem \u00fea\u00f0 er nota\u00f0 \u00ed. Vi\u00f0 e\u00f0lilegar a\u00f0st\u00e6\u00f0ur skiptir t.d. m\u00f6guleikinn \u00e1 a\u00f0 vi\u00f0 g\u00e6tum veri\u00f0 heili \u00ed krukku ekki m\u00e1li en \u00feegar \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ingar koma saman til a\u00f0 r\u00e6\u00f0a efahyggjuna \u00fe\u00e1 skiptir s\u00e1 fjarst\u00e6\u00f0ukenndi m\u00f6guleiki m\u00e1li.<\/p>\n<p>Samhengiskenningar eru oftast settar fram fr\u00e1 sj\u00f3narh\u00f3li \u00feess sem <em>eignar<\/em> \u00f6\u00f0rum <em>\u00feekkingu<\/em> (e. <em>knowledge attributor<\/em>). Einhver (A) segir um annan (S): \u201eS veit a\u00f0 <em>f.<\/em>\u201c Hvort a\u00f0 \u00feessi fullyr\u00f0ing A um \u00feekkingu S s\u00e9 s\u00f6nn fer eftir samhengi A. Ef samhengi\u00f0 er strangt (t.d. ef A situr me\u00f0 \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ingum og r\u00e6\u00f0ir efahyggjuna) \u00fe\u00e1 eru kr\u00f6furnar sem S \u00fearf a\u00f0 uppfylla til a\u00f0 fullyr\u00f0ing A s\u00e9 s\u00f6nn (\u00fe.e. a\u00f0 fullyr\u00f0ingin \u201eS veit a\u00f0 <em>f<\/em>\u201c s\u00e9 s\u00f6nn) mun meiri en ef samhengi\u00f0 er milt (t.d. ef A situr \u00ed str\u00e6t\u00f3 og r\u00e6\u00f0ir vi\u00f0 d\u00f3ttur s\u00edna um \u00feekkingu f\u00f6\u00f0ur hennar). \u00deannig fer sanngildi fullyr\u00f0ingarinnar eftir samhenginu sem A er \u00ed.<\/p>\n<p>Meginhugmynd samhengishyggjunnar m\u00e1 or\u00f0a \u00e1 \u00feann h\u00e1tt a\u00f0 \u00feekkingarfullyr\u00f0ingar s\u00e9u sama e\u00f0lis og samhengish\u00e1\u00f0ar fullyr\u00f0ingar eins og:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>\u00c9g er kennari.<\/li>\n<li>\u00dea\u00f0 rignir.<\/li>\n<li>\u00deetta er kaktus.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>Merking \u00feessara fullyr\u00f0inga er h\u00e1\u00f0 samhengi. \u00c1n samhengis eru \u00fe\u00e6r merkingarlausar, e\u00f0a: Sanngildi \u00feeirra er skilyrt af samhengi.<\/p>\n<p>Fullyr\u00f0ing eins og:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>\u201eUnnur veit a\u00f0 \u00fea\u00f0 rignir\u201c<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>er \u00e1 sama h\u00e1tt samhengisbundin \u00fear sem samhengi\u00f0 er <em>\u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ileg sta\u00f0a<\/em> (e. <em>epistemic position<\/em>) \u00feess sem fullyr\u00f0ir a\u00f0 Unnur viti a\u00f0 \u00fea\u00f0 rigni. Fullyr\u00f0ingin er s\u00f6nn \u00ed hversdagslegu samhengi en \u00f3s\u00f6nn \u00ed r\u00f6kr\u00e6\u00f0u um efahyggju. <em>\u00d3breytanleikasinnar<\/em> (e. <em>invariantism<\/em>) hafna \u00feessu og s\u00e6tta sig ekki vi\u00f0 a\u00f0 fullyr\u00f0ingin geti vi\u00f0 sumar a\u00f0st\u00e6\u00f0ur veri\u00f0 s\u00f6nn en vi\u00f0 a\u00f0rar a\u00f0st\u00e6\u00f0ur \u00f3s\u00f6nn.<\/p>\n<p>Vi\u00f0 lesum eftirfarandi texta:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Keith DeRose \u201eSolving the Skeptical Problem\u201c (m\u00e1 sleppa k\u00f6flum 3-7), David Lewis \u201eElusive Knowledge\u201c.<\/li>\n<li>Nagel \u201eShifting standards?\u201c<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\u00cdtarefni:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/entries\/contextualism-epistemology\/\">Epistemic contextualism (SEP)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/wi4hZg7EtK8?list=PLtKNX4SfKpzWo1oasZmNPOzZaQdHw3TIe\">Contextualism (YT)<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>Keith DeRose \u201eSolving the Skeptical Problem\u201c<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>DeRose leggur \u00fat af klass\u00edskum efahyggjur\u00f6kum (sj\u00e1 s\u00f6mu r\u00f6kf\u00e6rslu \u00ed \u00f6\u00f0ru formi \u00ed <a href=\"http:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/kennsla\/inngangur-ad-thekkingarfraedi\/kennsluaaetlun-2016\/iv-thekkingarfraedileg-lokun\/\">IV. kafla<\/a>) og reynir a\u00f0 svara \u00feeim:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>\u00c9g veit ekki a\u00f0 mig er ekki a\u00f0 dreyma.<\/li>\n<li>Ef veit ekki a\u00f0 mig er ekki a\u00f0 dreyma \u00fe\u00e1 veit \u00e9g ekki a\u00f0 \u00e9g stend h\u00e9r.<\/li>\n<li>\u00deess vegna \u2013 \u00e9g veit ekki a\u00f0 \u00e9g stend h\u00e9r.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>Gallinn vi\u00f0 \u00feessa r\u00f6kf\u00e6rslu (<em>van\u00feekkingarr\u00f6kin<\/em>, e.\u00a0<em>argument from ignorance<\/em>, skammstafa\u00f0 AI) er a\u00f0 m\u00e6likvar\u00f0inn \u00e1 \u00feekkingu er allt of h\u00e1r og um lei\u00f0 og vi\u00f0 sam\u00feykkjum forsendur efahyggjunnar <em>vi\u00f0 allar hugsanlega a\u00f0st\u00e6\u00f0ur<\/em> \u00fe\u00e1 getum vi\u00f0 aldrei gert r\u00e1\u00f0 fyrir \u00feekkingu. En \u00feetta er rangt, a\u00f0 mati DeRose. Svo strangur m\u00e6likvar\u00f0i \u00e1 \u00feekkingu \u00e1 einfaldlega ekki vi\u00f0 alla jafna. Vi\u00f0 a\u00f0rar og e\u00f0lilegri a\u00f0st\u00e6\u00f0ur er m\u00e6likvar\u00f0i okkar \u00e1 \u00feekkingu annar og vi\u00f0 getum hafna\u00f0 forsendu 1 - vi\u00f0 e\u00f0lilegar a\u00f0st\u00e6\u00f0ur vitum vi\u00f0 a\u00f0 okkur er ekki a\u00f0 dreyma. En hvernig skilgreinum vi\u00f0 \u00feessar a\u00f0st\u00e6\u00f0ur? \u00cd samhengi hva\u00f0a r\u00f6kr\u00e6\u00f0u e\u00f0a samtals \u00e1 vi\u00f0 a\u00f0 h\u00e6kka m\u00e6likvar\u00f0a \u00feekkingar og \u00ed hva\u00f0a samhengi \u00e1 \u00fea\u00f0 ekki vi\u00f0?<\/p>\n<p>R\u00f6kin um <em>\u00feekkingartileinkun<\/em> e\u00f0a <em>eignun<\/em> (e. <em>knowledge attribution<\/em>): Einhver (A) segir: \u201eS veit a\u00f0 <em>f<\/em>\u201c um sanna sko\u00f0un S a\u00f0 <em>f<\/em>. Samhengishyggjan segir:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>\u00ddmis <em>s\u00e9rkenni<\/em> (e. <em>features<\/em>) vi\u00f0 <em>samtalsa\u00f0st\u00e6\u00f0ur<\/em> (e. <em>conversational context<\/em>) A stj\u00f3rna \u00fev\u00ed hversu sterk <em>\u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ileg sta\u00f0a<\/em> (e. <em>epistemic position<\/em>) S \u00fearf a\u00f0 vera til a\u00f0 fullyr\u00f0ing A s\u00e9 s\u00f6nn.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><em>Vi\u00f0bj\u00f3\u00f0slega samtengingin<\/em> (e. <em>the Abominable Conjunction<\/em>) er hugtak sem DeRose notar um \u00f3\u00e1s\u00e6ttanleg vi\u00f0br\u00f6g\u00f0 vi\u00f0 efahyggjur\u00f6kum:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>\u00de\u00f3 \u00e9g viti ekki a\u00f0 \u00e9g s\u00e9 ekki heili \u00ed krukku \u00fe\u00e1 veit \u00e9g a\u00f0 \u00e9g hef hendur.<\/li>\n<li>(A: \u00c9g veit ekki a\u00f0 \u00e9g er ekki heili \u00ed krukku; B: \u00c9g veit a\u00f0 \u00e9g hef hendur; \u201eA og B\u201c er vi\u00f0bj\u00f3\u00f0slega samtengingin).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>DeRose hafnar \u00feessari \u201elausn\u201c.<\/p>\n<p><strong>David Lewis \u201eElusive Knowledge\u201c<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>\u00deekking hefur tilhneigingu til a\u00f0 sleppa fr\u00e1 okkur \u00feegar vi\u00f0 reynum a\u00f0 n\u00e1 til hennar. H\u00fan er ekki \u00f3skeikul - allar tilraunir til a\u00f0 skilgreina \u00feekkingu \u00fat fr\u00e1 \u00f3skeikulleika hafa mistekist - en hugsunin um <em>skeikula \u00feekkingu<\/em> (e. <em>fallible knowledge<\/em>) er s\u00e9rkennileg e\u00f0a \u00f3\u00fe\u00e6gileg. Til a\u00f0 breg\u00f0ast vi\u00f0 \u00feessu reynir David Lewis a\u00f0 n\u00e1 utan um \u00feekkingu me\u00f0 \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 sko\u00f0a hana \u00ed samhengi. Hann skilgreinir \u00feekkingu svona:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>\u00de\u00fa veist a\u00f0 <em>f<\/em> ef og a\u00f0eins ef allir m\u00f6guleikar sem gera <em>f<\/em> \u00f3sanna 1) eru \u00fatiloka\u00f0ir af s\u00f6nnunarg\u00f6gnum sem \u00fe\u00fa hefur e\u00f0a 2) eru r\u00e9ttilega sni\u00f0gengnir.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Li\u00f0ur 2 \u00ed \u00feessari skilgreiningu gerir kenningu hans a\u00f0 samhengiskenningu. Lewis tekur s\u00e9r s\u00ed\u00f0an fyrir a\u00f0 skilgreina hvernig vi\u00f0 getum r\u00e9ttilega sni\u00f0gengi\u00f0 \u00e1kve\u00f0na m\u00f6guleika. \u00cd lei\u00f0inni kemur hann fram me\u00f0 djarfar hugmundir um e\u00f0li \u00feekkingar.<\/p>\n<p>Lewis kynnir og sk\u00fdrir nokkrar reglur sem vi\u00f0 ver\u00f0um a\u00f0 huga a\u00f0 vi\u00f0 sko\u00f0anamyndum (\u00fear sem fyrstu \u00ferj\u00e1r hafa nokkra s\u00e9rst\u00f6\u00f0u):<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li><em>Raunveruleikareglan<\/em> (e. <em>Rule of Actuality<\/em>), sem bindur sko\u00f0anir vi\u00f0 raunveruleikann. Vi\u00f0 getum aldrei sni\u00f0gengi\u00f0 \u00fea\u00f0 sem raunverulega er tilfelli\u00f0.<\/li>\n<li><em>Sko\u00f0unarreglan<\/em> (e. <em>Rule of Belief<\/em>) sem bendir \u00e1 mikilv\u00e6gi sko\u00f0ana sem f\u00f3lk hefur. Vi\u00f0 getum aldrei sni\u00f0gengi\u00f0 \u00fea\u00f0 sem vi\u00f0 raunverulega teljum vera tilfelli\u00f0.<\/li>\n<li><em>L\u00edkindareglan<\/em> (e. <em>Rule of Resemblance<\/em>) sem kve\u00f0ur \u00e1 um a\u00f0 vi\u00f0 eigum a\u00f0 gera l\u00edkar kr\u00f6fur til l\u00edkra fyrirb\u00e6ra.<\/li>\n<li><em>\u00c1rei\u00f0anleikareglans<\/em> (e. <em>Rule of Reliability<\/em>) sem segir a\u00f0 vi\u00f0 getum alla jafna st\u00f3la\u00f0 \u00e1 \u00fea\u00f0 sem er \u00e1rei\u00f0anlegt.<\/li>\n<li><em>A\u00f0fer\u00f0arreglan<\/em> (e. <em>Rule of Method<\/em>) sem segir a\u00f0 vi\u00f0 getum alla jafna st\u00f3la\u00f0 \u00e1 g\u00f6gn sem vi\u00f0 h\u00f6fum.<\/li>\n<li><em>\u00cdhaldsreglan<\/em> (e. <em>Rule of Conservatism<\/em>) sem segir a\u00f0 vi\u00f0 getum alla jafna \u00fatiloka\u00f0 m\u00f6guleika sem f\u00f3lk \u00ed kringum okkur \u00fatilokar.<\/li>\n<li><em>Athyglisreglan<\/em> (e. <em>Rule of Attention<\/em>) sem segir a\u00f0 vi\u00f0 getum ekki \u00fatiloka\u00f0 m\u00f6guleika sem athygli okkar beinist a\u00f0.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>Af \u00feessum reglum getur athyglisreglan valdi\u00f0 \u00feekkingunni hva\u00f0 mestum ska\u00f0a. Efahyggjan beinir athygli okkar a\u00f0 villtustu m\u00f6guleikum og um lei\u00f0 og athyglinni er beint a\u00f0 \u00feeim getum vi\u00f0 ekki \u00fatiloka\u00f0 \u00fe\u00e1.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Samhengishyggja (e. contextualism) er n\u00fdleg kenning \u00ed \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0i. \u00cd fj\u00f3r\u00f0a hlut n\u00e1mskei\u00f0sins (\u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ileg lokun) kynntumst vi\u00f0 kenningum Fred Dretske og Gail Stine um vi\u00f0eigandi valkosti (e. relevant alternatives). \u00deessi kenning er n\u00e1skyld samhengishyggjunni, en samkv\u00e6mt henni fer merking hugtaksins \u201e\u00feekking\u201c &hellip; <a href=\"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/kennsla\/inngangur-ad-thekkingarfraedi\/kennsluaaetlun-2017\/viii-thekking-og-samhengi\/\">Halda \u00e1fram a\u00f0 lesa <span class=\"meta-nav\">&rarr;<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":414,"featured_media":0,"parent":811,"menu_order":8,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-1057","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/1057","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/414"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=1057"}],"version-history":[{"count":18,"href":"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/1057\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1378,"href":"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/1057\/revisions\/1378"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/811"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1057"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}