{"id":1076,"date":"2016-11-15T12:43:26","date_gmt":"2016-11-15T12:43:26","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/?page_id=1076"},"modified":"2017-11-22T09:16:44","modified_gmt":"2017-11-22T09:16:44","slug":"ix-vitnisburdur-minni-og-skynjun","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/kennsla\/inngangur-ad-thekkingarfraedi\/kennsluaaetlun-2017\/ix-vitnisburdur-minni-og-skynjun\/","title":{"rendered":"IX: Vitnisbur\u00f0ur, minni og skynjun"},"content":{"rendered":"<p>\u00deekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0i hefur mestmegnis fengist vi\u00f0 einstaklinga og \u00feekkingu \u00feeirra, hvort sem \u00fea\u00f0 er innanfr\u00e1 (innanhyggja) e\u00f0a utanfr\u00e1 (utanhyggja). Undir lok s\u00ed\u00f0ustu aldar f\u00f3r <em>f\u00e9lagsleg \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0i<\/em> (e. <em>social epistemology<\/em>) a\u00f0 ry\u00f0ja s\u00e9r til r\u00fams (stundum \u00ed formi gagnr\u00fdni \u00e1 hef\u00f0bundna \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0i en stundum bygg\u00f0 \u00e1 henni). H\u00fan beinir sj\u00f3num s\u00ednum a\u00f0 sko\u00f0unum einstaklinga, h\u00f3pa e\u00f0a stofnana og \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ilegum einkennum \u00feeirra. \u00cd \u00feessum hluta n\u00e1mskei\u00f0sins munum vi\u00f0 beina sj\u00f3num a\u00f0 f\u00e9lagslegri \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0i sem takmarkast vi\u00f0 einstaklinga, a\u00f0 kenningum \u00ed \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0i sem greina sko\u00f0anir einstaklinga sem byggjast \u00e1 f\u00e9lagslegum s\u00f6nnunarg\u00f6gnum. <em>Vitnisbur\u00f0ur<\/em> (e. <em>testimony<\/em>) er d\u00e6mi um f\u00e9lagsleg g\u00f6gn sem vi\u00f0 byggjum sko\u00f0anir okkar - og \u00feekkingu - \u00e1.<\/p>\n<p>Vi\u00f0 lesum eftirfarandi texta:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Judith Baker \u201eTrust and Rationality<em>\u201c, <\/em>Elizabeth Fricker \u201eAgainst Gullibility\u201c og Jennifer Lackey \u201eTestimonial Knowledge and Transmission\u201c.<\/li>\n<li>Nagel \u201eTestimony.\u201c<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\u00cdtarefni:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/entries\/testimony-episprob\/\">Epistemological Problems of Testimony (SEP)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/entries\/epistemology-social\/#FirBraSocEpiTesPeeDis\">Social Epistemology (SEP) - kafli 3<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>Judith Baker \u201eTrust and Rationality<em>\u201c<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Samf\u00e9lag byggir \u00e1 trausti og traust er krafa sem vi\u00f0 gerum \u00ed fj\u00f6lskyldu- og vinasambandi. En traust vir\u00f0ist ekki r\u00edma vi\u00f0 kr\u00f6fu um skynsemi e\u00f0a \u00fea\u00f0 a\u00f0 vera <em>\u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ilega skynsamur<\/em> (e. <em>epistemically rational<\/em>). Til a\u00f0 vera \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ilega skyns\u00f6m \u00feurfum vi\u00f0, skv. kenningunni, a\u00f0 byggja sko\u00f0anir okkar \u00e1 \u00e1rei\u00f0anlegum s\u00f6nnunarg\u00f6gnum.<\/p>\n<p>Baker fjallar um skynsemi og traust og tilraunir til a\u00f0 breg\u00f0ast vi\u00f0 \u00feessum vanda.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Elizabeth Fricker \u201eAgainst Gullibility\u201c<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Fricker beinir sj\u00f3num s\u00ednum a\u00f0 vitnisbur\u00f0i sem uppsprettu \u00feekkingar og hvernig vi\u00f0 getum r\u00f6kstutt (e\u00f0a r\u00e9ttl\u00e6tt) sko\u00f0anir mynda\u00f0ar \u00e1 grunni vitnisbur\u00f0ar. Ef vi\u00f0 gerum strangar \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ilegar kr\u00f6fur til vitnisbur\u00f0ar \u00fe\u00e1 g\u00e6tum vi\u00f0 enda\u00f0 me\u00f0 a\u00f0 \u00feurfa a\u00f0 hafna \u00f6llum vitnisbur\u00f0i - \u00fe.e. tr\u00faa engu sem neinn segir. Ef vi\u00f0 gerum veikari kr\u00f6fur g\u00e6tum vi\u00f0 enda\u00f0 me\u00f0 a\u00f0 \u00feurfa a\u00f0 sam\u00feykkja allan vitnisbur\u00f0 - \u00fe.e. tr\u00faa \u00f6llu sem allir segja. Fricker, sem er innanhyggju-\u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ingur, gerir strangar \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ilegar kr\u00f6fur til vitnisbur\u00f0ar og telur nau\u00f0synlegt a\u00f0 ma\u00f0ur leggi mat \u00e1 \u00e1rei\u00f0anleika vitnisins \u00ed hverju tilfelli.<\/p>\n<p>Fricker bregst vi\u00f0 kenningu um vitnisbur\u00f0 \u00fear sem gert er r\u00e1\u00f0 fyrir, \u00e1n frekari r\u00f6kstu\u00f0nings, a\u00f0 vitni s\u00e9u \u00e1rei\u00f0anleg. Kenningin sem h\u00fan bregst vi\u00f0 er \u00ed tvennu lagi (j\u00e1kv\u00e6\u00f0u og neikv\u00e6\u00f0u). \u00cd fyrsta lagi er forsendan um <em>l\u00edklegan r\u00e9tt<\/em> (LR, e. <em>presumptive right<\/em>), og \u00ed \u00f6\u00f0ru lagi er neikv\u00e6\u00f0a kenningin (NK):<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>LR: Vi\u00f0 s\u00e9rhvern vitnisbur\u00f0 hefur \u00e1heyrandi \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ilegan r\u00e9tt til a\u00f0 \u00e6tla, \u00e1n s\u00f6nnunargagna, a\u00f0 vitni\u00f0 s\u00e9 tr\u00faver\u00f0ugt, \u00fe.e. a\u00f0 \u00fea\u00f0 sem vitni\u00f0 segi s\u00e9 satt \u2013 nema eitthva\u00f0 s\u00e9rstakt vi\u00f0 a\u00f0st\u00e6\u00f0urnar <em>sigri<\/em> (e. <em>defeat<\/em>) \u00feessa \u00e6tlun.<\/li>\n<li>NK: Almennt er ekki m\u00f6gulegt fyrir \u00e1heyranda a\u00f0 f\u00e1 \u00f3h\u00e1\u00f0a sta\u00f0festingu \u00e1 a\u00f0 vitni s\u00e9 tr\u00faver\u00f0ugt \u2013 a\u00f0 \u00fea\u00f0 sem vitni\u00f0 segi s\u00e9 satt.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Lei\u00f0 Fricker til a\u00f0 hafna LR er a\u00f0 hafna NK, \u00e1 \u00feeirri forsendu a\u00f0 NK s\u00e9 li\u00f0ur \u00ed r\u00f6kf\u00e6rslu fyrir LR.<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>\u00deekking getur og er oft fengin \u00ed gegnum vitnisbur\u00f0.<\/li>\n<li>Almennt er ekki m\u00f6gulegt fyrir \u00e1heyranda a\u00f0 f\u00e1 \u00f3h\u00e1\u00f0a sta\u00f0festingu \u00e1 a\u00f0 vitni s\u00e9 tr\u00faver\u00f0ugt \u2013 a\u00f0 vitni\u00f0 segi satt. (=NK)<\/li>\n<li><em>\u00deess vegna<\/em>: \u00deekking f\u00e6st a\u00f0eins \u00ed gegnum vitnisbur\u00f0 ef \u00e1heyrandi hefur l\u00edklegan r\u00e9tt til a\u00f0 treysta hva\u00f0a vitni sem er.<\/li>\n<li><em>\u00deess vegna<\/em>: L\u00edklegur r\u00e9ttur til a\u00f0 treysta er til (sem lei\u00f0ir til LR).<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>Fricker setur kenningu s\u00edna um vitnisbur\u00f0 fram \u00ed tveimur li\u00f0um (greinin fjallar mest um li\u00f0 2):<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>S sta\u00f0h\u00e6fir a\u00f0 <em>f<\/em> vi\u00f0 a\u00f0st\u00e6\u00f0ur A.<\/li>\n<li>Vitni S er tr\u00faver\u00f0ugt me\u00f0 tilliti til sta\u00f0h\u00e6fingar \u00feess <em>U<\/em>, sem er sta\u00f0h\u00e6f\u00f0 vi\u00f0 a\u00f0st\u00e6\u00f0ur <em>A<\/em>, og \u00fear sem \u00fea\u00f0 fullyr\u00f0ir <em>f<\/em>, ef og a\u00f0eins ef:\n<ul>\n<li>i) U er einl\u00e6g;<\/li>\n<li>ii) S er h\u00e6ft me\u00f0 tilliti til <em>f<\/em> \u00e1 <em>A<\/em>, \u00fear sem vi\u00f0 skilgreinum \u00feetta svo:\n<ul>\n<li>Ef S sta\u00f0h\u00e6f\u00f0i U einl\u00e6glega vi\u00f0 A \u00fe\u00e1 v\u00e6ri tilfelli\u00f0 a\u00f0 <em>f<\/em>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p><strong>Jennifer Lackey \u201eTestimonial Knowledge and Transmission\u201c<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Or\u00f0i\u00f0 \u201evitnisbur\u00f0ur\u201c og or\u00f0alagi\u00f0 \u201ea\u00f0 bera vitni\u201c fela \u00ed s\u00e9r a\u00f0 eitthva\u00f0 s\u00e9 flutt fr\u00e1 einum sta\u00f0 til annars. Vi\u00f0 getum skili\u00f0 \u00feetta sem svo a\u00f0 einhver sem veit flytji \u00feessa vitneskju s\u00edna til annars sem veit ekki (sj\u00e1 um \u201evitni\u201c \u00ed <a href=\"http:\/\/m\u00e1li\u00f0.is\/leit\/vitni\"><em>\u00cdslensku or\u00f0sifjab\u00f3kinni<\/em><\/a>). \u00cd \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0i er vitnisbur\u00f0ur oft sk\u00fdr\u00f0ur \u00e1 \u00feennan h\u00e1tt. Vitnisbur\u00f0ur er flutningur \u00feekkingar \u00ed gegnum vitni til \u00feess sem tekur vi\u00f0 vitnisbur\u00f0inum. Forsenda \u00feess a\u00f0 \u00feekking (e\u00f0a vitneskja) flytjist me\u00f0 vitninu er a\u00f0 vitni\u00f0 sj\u00e1lft hafi \u00feekkinguna (vitni\u00f0 g\u00e6ti haft hana fr\u00e1 \u00f6\u00f0ru vitni; \u00ed \u00feessu tilfelli \u00fearf ke\u00f0ja vitnisbur\u00f0a a\u00f0 stoppa hj\u00e1 einhverjum sem veit \u00e1 annan h\u00e1tt en \u00ed gegnum vitnisbur\u00f0). Lackey hafnar \u00feessari kenningu og s\u00fdnir fram \u00e1, me\u00f0 vel v\u00f6ldum d\u00e6mum, a\u00f0 ma\u00f0ur getur \u00f6\u00f0last \u00feekkingu \u00ed gegnum vitnisbur\u00f0 \u00e1n \u00feess a\u00f0 vitni\u00f0 hafi \u00feekkinguna.<\/p>\n<p>Hef\u00f0bundna kenningin sem Lackey f\u00e6rir r\u00f6k gegn felur eftirfarandi \u00ed s\u00e9r:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>\u00c1heyrendur f\u00e1 \u00feekkingu fr\u00e1 vitni.<\/li>\n<li>Vitni\u00f0 ver\u00f0ur sj\u00e1lft a\u00f0 vita \u00fea\u00f0 sem \u00fea\u00f0 vitnar um.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>Lackey greinir li\u00f0 tv\u00f6 s\u00ed\u00f0an \u00ed tvennt, eftir \u00fev\u00ed hvort nau\u00f0synlegt s\u00e9 a\u00f0 \u00f6ll vitni hafi \u00feekkingu a\u00f0 mi\u00f0la e\u00f0a hvort n\u00f3g s\u00e9 a\u00f0 fyrsti li\u00f0ur ke\u00f0junnar hafi \u00feessa \u00feekkingu, og or\u00f0ar svona:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>2: Fyrir s\u00e9rhvert vitni S og \u00e1heyranda \u00c1H, ef \u00c1H l\u00e6rir <em>f<\/em> af vitnisbur\u00f0i S um a\u00f0 <em>f<\/em> \u00fe\u00e1 ver\u00f0ur S a\u00f0 vita a\u00f0 <em>f<\/em>.<\/li>\n<li>2*: Fyrir s\u00e9rhverja vitnake\u00f0ju K, til a\u00f0 \u00e1heyrandi \u00c1H \u00ed K l\u00e6ri a\u00f0 <em>f<\/em> \u00ed gegnum vitnisbur\u00f0 S \u00ed K \u00fearf \u00ed \u00fea\u00f0 minnsta fyrsti S \u00ed K a\u00f0 vita a\u00f0 <em>f<\/em>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>H\u00fan f\u00e6rir s\u00ed\u00f0an r\u00f6k gegn b\u00e1\u00f0um m\u00f6guleikum og telur ekki \u00ed neinu tilfelli nau\u00f0synlegt a\u00f0 vitni, e\u00f0a li\u00f0ur \u00ed vitnalei\u00f0sluke\u00f0ju, hafi \u00feekkingu. H\u00fan gerir \u00fea\u00f0 me\u00f0 d\u00e6mum. Eitt er d\u00e6mi\u00f0 um \u00fer\u00f3unarkenningarkennarann sem er sannf\u00e6r\u00f0ur um a\u00f0 sk\u00f6punarsagan s\u00e9 s\u00f6nn:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Kennari er sannf\u00e6r\u00f0ur um a\u00f0 sk\u00f6punarsagan s\u00e9 s\u00f6nn og \u00fer\u00f3unarkenningin r\u00f6ng. \u00c1st\u00e6\u00f0u fyrir \u00feessu m\u00e1 finna \u00ed barn\u00e6sku og \u00f3bilandi tr\u00fa \u00e1 sk\u00f6punars\u00f6gunni \u2013 \u00feetta er einf\u00f6ld sta\u00f0reynd um kennarann. Hann kennir hins vegar \u00fer\u00f3unarkenninguna og mi\u00f0lar eftir bestu getu, kynnir s\u00e9r allar n\u00fdjustu ranns\u00f3knir og vitnisbur\u00f0ur kennarans er \u00ed \u00f6llum grundvallaratri\u00f0um mj\u00f6g n\u00e6rri v\u00edsindalega vi\u00f0urkenndum sannleika. Samt hefur kennarinn ekki \u00fe\u00e1 sko\u00f0un a\u00f0 \u00fer\u00f3unarkenningin s\u00e9 s\u00f6nn. Nemendurnir vita \u00feetta ekki heldur a\u00f0eins hitt a\u00f0 kennarinn hefur reynst mj\u00f6g g\u00f3\u00f0ur og \u00e1rei\u00f0anlegur hinga\u00f0 til.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\u00deetta d\u00e6mi s\u00fdnir a\u00f0 vitni getur mi\u00f0la\u00f0 \u00feekkingu \u00e1n \u00feess a\u00f0 hafa sj\u00e1lft sko\u00f0unina (og \u00fear me\u00f0 \u00e1n \u00feess a\u00f0 hafa sj\u00e1lft \u00feekkinguna) sem \u00fea\u00f0 er a\u00f0 mi\u00f0la.<\/p>\n<p>\u00d6nnur d\u00e6mi byggjast \u00e1 kenningu um <em>sigrara<\/em> (e. <em>defeaters<\/em>), \u00fe.e. d\u00e6mi \u00fear sem s\u00f6nn r\u00f6kstudd sko\u00f0un er sigru\u00f0 (e\u00f0a \u00f3n\u00fdtt) af \u00f6\u00f0rum sko\u00f0unum e\u00f0a sta\u00f0reyndum. D\u00e6mi um sl\u00edkt v\u00e6ri eftirfarandi:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Anna situr \u00e1 tr\u00f6ppum A\u00f0albyggingarinnar \u00ed \u00feungum \u00fe\u00f6nkum. H\u00fan hefur \u00e1 \u00feessari stundu algerlega sannf\u00e6rst af almennum efahyggjur\u00f6kum (var a\u00f0 lj\u00faka vi\u00f0 a\u00f0 horfa \u00e1 Westworld) og er viss um a\u00f0 gervigreind s\u00e9 svo \u00fer\u00f3u\u00f0 a\u00f0 vi\u00f0 s\u00e9um \u00f6ll bara hluti af tilb\u00fanum heimi. Kofi Annan, sem \u00e1 a\u00f0 opna Hugv\u00edsinda\u00feing \u00ed H\u00e1t\u00ed\u00f0asalnum, kemur a\u00f0 \u00d6nnu og spyr: \u201eEr \u00feetta A\u00f0albyggingin?\u201c Anna svarar j\u00e1tandi, \u00fer\u00e1tt fyrir a\u00f0 vera sannf\u00e6r\u00f0 um a\u00f0 h\u00fan viti \u00ed raun ekkert um \u00fea\u00f0.<\/li>\n<li>Eyd\u00eds b\u00f3ndi er g\u00f3\u00f0ur vinur minni, hei\u00f0arleg veit \u00e9g. H\u00fan kvartar yfir \u00fev\u00ed dag einn a\u00f0 sveitungar hennar hafa teki\u00f0 upp \u00e1 \u00feeirri h\u00e9g\u00f3mlegu i\u00f0ju a\u00f0 setja upp gervihl\u00f6\u00f0ur vi\u00f0 b\u00e6i s\u00edna \u00ed Skagafir\u00f0inum, allt til a\u00f0 sveitin l\u00edti \u00fat fyrir a\u00f0 vera bl\u00f3mlegri en h\u00fan er. H\u00fan fyrirl\u00edtur \u00feetta. Dag einn kemur \u00d3li til m\u00edn og segist hafa s\u00e9\u00f0 n\u00fdja hl\u00f6\u00f0u vi\u00f0 b\u00e6 Eyd\u00edsar b\u00f3nda. \u00c9g veit a\u00f0 sveitin er full af gervihl\u00f6\u00f0um, ekki \u00d3li.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Spyrja m\u00e1 hvort Nanna og Bjarki s\u00e9u \u00e1rei\u00f0anleg vitni \u00ed \u00feessum samhengjum. Lykilatri\u00f0i fyrir Lackey er a\u00f0 mi\u00f0lun \u00feekkingar veltur ekki bara \u00e1 vitninu og sko\u00f0unum \u00feess heldur \u00e1 \u00fev\u00ed sem vitni\u00f0 sta\u00f0h\u00e6fir og \u00e1 forsendum \u00e1heyrandans til a\u00f0 meta sta\u00f0h\u00e6fingu vitnisins.<\/p>\n<p>Lackey skilgreinir a\u00f0 lokum \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ilegan vitnisbur\u00f0 (\u00deV) \u00e1 \u00feennan h\u00e1tt:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>\u00deV: Fyrir s\u00e9rhvert vitni S og \u00e1heyranda \u00c1H, \u00c1H l\u00e6rir a\u00f0 <em>f<\/em> af sta\u00f0h\u00e6fingu S a\u00f0 <em>f<\/em> ef og a\u00f0eins ef: 1) sta\u00f0h\u00e6fing S um a\u00f0 <em>f<\/em> er \u00e1 fulln\u00e6gjandi h\u00e1tt tengd vi\u00f0 sta\u00f0reyndina a\u00f0 <em>f<\/em> og 2) \u00c1H hefur enga sigrara sem benda til hins gagnst\u00e6\u00f0a.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>\u00deekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0i hefur mestmegnis fengist vi\u00f0 einstaklinga og \u00feekkingu \u00feeirra, hvort sem \u00fea\u00f0 er innanfr\u00e1 (innanhyggja) e\u00f0a utanfr\u00e1 (utanhyggja). Undir lok s\u00ed\u00f0ustu aldar f\u00f3r f\u00e9lagsleg \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0i (e. social epistemology) a\u00f0 ry\u00f0ja s\u00e9r til r\u00fams (stundum \u00ed formi gagnr\u00fdni \u00e1 hef\u00f0bundna \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0i &hellip; <a href=\"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/kennsla\/inngangur-ad-thekkingarfraedi\/kennsluaaetlun-2017\/ix-vitnisburdur-minni-og-skynjun\/\">Halda \u00e1fram a\u00f0 lesa <span class=\"meta-nav\">&rarr;<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":414,"featured_media":0,"parent":811,"menu_order":9,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-1076","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/1076","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/414"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=1076"}],"version-history":[{"count":14,"href":"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/1076\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1475,"href":"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/1076\/revisions\/1475"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/811"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1076"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}