{"id":975,"date":"2016-10-10T22:50:28","date_gmt":"2016-10-10T22:50:28","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/?page_id=975"},"modified":"2017-08-24T23:14:13","modified_gmt":"2017-08-24T23:14:13","slug":"inngangur-ad-thekkingarfraedi-yfirlit","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/kennsla\/inngangur-ad-thekkingarfraedi\/kennsluaaetlun-2017\/inngangur-ad-thekkingarfraedi-yfirlit\/","title":{"rendered":"Inngangur a\u00f0 \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0i - yfirlit"},"content":{"rendered":"

\u00deekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0i (e. epistemology<\/em>) f\u00e6st vi\u00f0 e\u00f0li og m\u00f6guleika \u00feekkingar fr\u00e1 heimspekilegu sj\u00f3narmi\u00f0i. Vi\u00f0 getum raki\u00f0 s\u00f6gu \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0innar \u00e1 Vesturl\u00f6ndum \u00ed \u00fea\u00f0 minnsta aftur til Platons og verksins \u00dee\u00e6tetosar<\/em>, \u00fear sem S\u00f3krates f\u00e6rir r\u00f6k fyrir \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 \u00feekking s\u00e9 meira en s\u00f6nn sko\u00f0un. \u00cd vi\u00f0b\u00f3t \u00feurfum vi\u00f0, a\u00f0 mati S\u00f3kratesar, logos<\/em> \u2013 sem segir okkur af hverju s\u00f6nn sko\u00f0un er s\u00f6nn. Fr\u00e1 Platoni h\u00f6fum vi\u00f0 skilgreiningu \u00e1 \u00feekkingu sem er svona: \u00feekking er s\u00f6nn r\u00f6kstudd sko\u00f0un (e. knowledge is justified true belief<\/em>). En af hverju \u00feurfum vi\u00f0 meira en sannar sko\u00f0anir? Vi\u00f0 erum \u00f6ll full af sko\u00f0unum sem vi\u00f0 myndum eftir mismunandi lei\u00f0um. Sumar af sko\u00f0unum okkar eru sannar \u00e1 me\u00f0an a\u00f0rar eru \u00f3sannar. Hrein tilviljun getur \u00ed sumum tilfellum r\u00e1\u00f0i\u00f0 \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 sko\u00f0un s\u00e9 s\u00f6nn en \u00ed \u00f6\u00f0rum tilfellum er \u00e1st\u00e6\u00f0an s\u00fa a\u00f0 vi\u00f0 h\u00f6fum g\u00f3\u00f0a og gilda \u00e1st\u00e6\u00f0u fyrir \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 telja sko\u00f0unina sanna \u2013 \u00fe.e. vi\u00f0 h\u00f6fum r\u00f6kstu\u00f0ning fyrir sko\u00f0uninni (ath. a\u00f0 enska hugtaki\u00f0 justification<\/em> er h\u00e9r \u00fe\u00fdtt sem r\u00f6kstu\u00f0ningur<\/em>, en \u00fea\u00f0 er stundum \u00fe\u00fdtt sem r\u00e9ttl\u00e6ting<\/em>). Til a\u00f0 um \u00feekkingu s\u00e9 a\u00f0 r\u00e6\u00f0a er almennt tali\u00f0 nau\u00f0synlegt a\u00f0 hafa r\u00f6kstudda sko\u00f0un, \u00fe.e. a\u00f0 vita af hverju ma\u00f0ur veit (vi\u00f0 komum n\u00e1nar a\u00f0 vandam\u00e1lum vi\u00f0 \u00feetta skilyr\u00f0i s\u00ed\u00f0ar).<\/p>\n

Ekkert af hugt\u00f6kunum sko\u00f0un<\/em>, sannleikur<\/em> e\u00f0a r\u00f6kstu\u00f0ningur<\/em> er einfalt e\u00f0a au\u00f0velt a\u00f0 skilgreina. \u00c1 \u00feessu stigi \u00e6tti eftirfarandi a\u00f0 duga.<\/p>\n

    \n
  1. Sko\u00f0un<\/em> er hugr\u00e6nt fyrirb\u00e6ri sem beinist a\u00f0 fullyr\u00f0ingu. A\u00f0 hafa sko\u00f0un er a\u00f0 halda a\u00f0 eitthva\u00f0 og \u00feetta eitthva\u00f0 sem ma\u00f0ur heldur er e\u00f0lilegt a\u00f0 setja fram sem fullyr\u00f0ingu. D\u00e6mi: \u201e\u00e9g held a\u00f0 \u00fe\u00fa s\u00e9rt fr\u00e6nka m\u00edn\u201c; \u00ed \u00feessu tilfelli h\u00f6fum vi\u00f0 \u00fe\u00e1 hugr\u00e6nu afst\u00f6\u00f0u til fullyr\u00f0ingarinnar \u201e\u00fe\u00fa ert fr\u00e6nka m\u00edn\u201c a\u00f0 h\u00fan s\u00e9 s\u00f6nn e\u00f0a l\u00edklega s\u00f6nn.<\/li>\n
  2. Sannleikur<\/em> merkir a\u00f0 vi\u00f0komandi fullyr\u00f0ing s\u00e9 s\u00f6nn (\u00feetta er au\u00f0vita\u00f0 klifun en \u00ed \u00feessu samhengi er \u00f3\u00fearfi a\u00f0 skilgreina hugtaki\u00f0 sannleika \u00e1 annan h\u00e1tt). D\u00e6mi: Fullyr\u00f0ingin \u201e\u00fe\u00fa ert fr\u00e6nka m\u00edn\u201c er s\u00f6nn ef og a\u00f0eins ef \u201e\u00fe\u00fa\u201c ert fr\u00e6nka m\u00edn (e\u00f0a s\u00fa manneskja sem \u201e\u00fe\u00fa\u201c v\u00edsar \u00ed s\u00e9 fr\u00e6nka \u00feeirrar mannesku sem \u201em\u00edn\u201c v\u00edsar \u00ed; \u00ed \u00feessu samhengi er \u00f3\u00fearfi a\u00f0 velta fyrir s\u00e9r skilgreiningu \u00e1 \u201efr\u00e6nka\u201c).<\/li>\n
  3. R\u00f6kstu\u00f0ningur<\/em> er s\u00fa \u00e1st\u00e6\u00f0a sem vi\u00f0 h\u00f6fum til a\u00f0 \u00e6tla a\u00f0 tiltekin fullyr\u00f0ing s\u00e9 s\u00f6nn. D\u00e6mi: \u00c9g held a\u00f0 \u00fe\u00fa s\u00e9rt fr\u00e6nka m\u00edn vegna \u00feess a\u00f0 mamma sag\u00f0i m\u00e9r \u00fea\u00f0 \u00ed g\u00e6r. Ef \u00e9g treysti m\u00f6mmu til a\u00f0 vita \u00feetta og ef \u00e9g treysti henni til a\u00f0 segja m\u00e9r satt \u00fe\u00e1 hef \u00e9g g\u00f3\u00f0a og gilda \u00e1st\u00e6\u00f0u til a\u00f0 \u00e6tla a\u00f0 \u201e\u00fe\u00fa\u201c s\u00e9rt fr\u00e6nka m\u00edn.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

    \u00d6ll \u00feessi hugt\u00f6k eru umdeilanleg og umdeild innan \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0innar. \u00deetta \u00e1 s\u00e9rstaklega vi\u00f0 um r\u00f6kstu\u00f0ning.<\/p>\n

    N\u00e1mskei\u00f0i\u00f0 er \u00ed n\u00edu hlutum sem samsvara n\u00edu k\u00f6flum \u00ed lesb\u00f3k n\u00e1mskei\u00f0sins. H\u00e9r \u00e1 eftir er yfirlit yfir n\u00e1mskei\u00f0i\u00f0 og hvernig kaflar \u00feess tengjast.<\/p>\n

    I: Inngangur og efahyggja<\/strong><\/p>\n

    Efahyggjan er st\u00f3ra gr\u00fdla \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0innar. H\u00fan kemur \u00ed \u00fdmsum myndum sem eiga allar sameiginlegt a\u00f0 efast er um m\u00f6guleika \u00feekkingar. Efahyggjan getur veri\u00f0 s\u00e9rt\u00e6k, \u00fe.e. \u00e1tt vi\u00f0 um \u00e1kve\u00f0in svi\u00f0 \u00feekkingarinnar eins og hinn ytri heim (e. external world<\/em>), huga annarra (e. other minds<\/em>) e\u00f0a minningar (e. memory<\/em>). H\u00fan getur l\u00edka veri\u00f0 alt\u00e6k, eins og t.d. \u00ed s\u00f6gunni um illa anda Descartes.<\/p>\n

    H\u00e9r a\u00f0 ofan kom fram a\u00f0 \u00fea\u00f0 a\u00f0 hafa r\u00f6kstudda sko\u00f0un s\u00e9 a\u00f0 vita af hverju ma\u00f0ur veit eitthva\u00f0 \u00e1kve\u00f0i\u00f0 (t.d. a\u00f0 vita af hverju \u00e9g veit a\u00f0 \u00fe\u00fa ert fr\u00e6nka m\u00edn). R\u00f6kstu\u00f0ningur af \u00feessu tagi felur oftast \u00ed s\u00e9r tilv\u00edsun \u00ed einhverja a\u00f0ra sko\u00f0un en \u00fe\u00e1 sem ma\u00f0ur telur sig vita. En \u00fe\u00e1 m\u00e1 spyrja um \u00feessa n\u00fdju sko\u00f0un: Hvernig veistu a\u00f0 h\u00fan er s\u00f6nn? Ef vi\u00f0 t\u00e1knum sko\u00f0un me\u00f0 litlum sk\u00e1letru\u00f0um b\u00f3kstaf m\u00e1 or\u00f0a \u00feetta svona: \u00c9g veit a\u00f0 f<\/em> vegna \u00feess a\u00f0 g<\/em>. En hvernig veit \u00e9g a\u00f0 g<\/em>? Vegna \u00feess a\u00f0 h<\/em>. Og svo framvegis. \u00deessi r\u00f6k hafa veri\u00f0 k\u00f6llu\u00f0 afturhvarfsr\u00f6kin<\/em> (e. epistemic regress<\/em>) og \u00fat \u00far \u00feeim vir\u00f0ast bara \u00ferj\u00e1r lei\u00f0ir:<\/p>\n

      \n
    1. A\u00f0 st\u00f6\u00f0va afturhvarfi\u00f0 me\u00f0 \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 benda \u00e1 sko\u00f0anir sem \u00fearf ekki a\u00f0 r\u00f6ksty\u00f0ja, sko\u00f0anir sem eru auglj\u00f3slega sannar \u00ed einhverjum skilningi;<\/li>\n
    2. S\u00e6tta sig vi\u00f0 a\u00f0 afturhvarfi\u00f0 fari \u00ed hring \u00feannig a\u00f0 vi\u00f0 endum me\u00f0 \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 segja: \u00c9g veit a\u00f0 h<\/em> vegna \u00feess a\u00f0 f<\/em>;<\/li>\n
    3. S\u00e6tta sig vi\u00f0 a\u00f0 r\u00f6kstu\u00f0ningurinn haldi \u00e1fram endalaust. Einnig g\u00e6ti ma\u00f0ur s\u00e6tt sig vi\u00f0 efahyggjuna og sagt a\u00f0 \u00feekking s\u00e9 \u00f3m\u00f6guleg.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

      II: Uppbygging \u00feekkingar og r\u00f6kstu\u00f0nings<\/strong><\/p>\n

      \u00cd \u00feessum hluta sko\u00f0um vi\u00f0 n\u00e1nar tilraunir til a\u00f0 m\u00e6ta afturhvarfsr\u00f6kunum. Lei\u00f0irnar \u00ferj\u00e1r sem voru nefndar h\u00e9r a\u00f0 ofan eru eftirfarandi:<\/p>\n

        \n
      1. Bjarghyggja<\/em> (e. foundationalism<\/em>). H\u00e9r er \u00feekking bygg\u00f0 \u00e1 f\u00f6stum undirst\u00f6\u00f0un (stundum k\u00f6llu\u00f0 undirst\u00f6\u00f0uhyggja<\/em> \u00e1 \u00edslensku) sem eru sko\u00f0anir sem \u00fearfnast ekki r\u00f6kstu\u00f0nings.<\/li>\n
      2. Samkv\u00e6mnishyggja<\/em> (e. coherentism<\/em>). H\u00e9r er \u00feekking bygg\u00f0 \u00e1 r\u00f6kstu\u00f0ningi sem fer \u00ed hring.<\/li>\n
      3. \u00d3endanleikahyggja<\/em> (e. infinitism<\/em>). H\u00e9r er \u00feekking bygg\u00f0 \u00e1 r\u00f6kstu\u00f0ningi sem heldur \u00e1fram endalaust (sumir telja \u00feetta \u00ed raun vera \u00fea\u00f0 sama og a\u00f0 fallast \u00e1 efahyggjuna).<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

        Vi\u00f0 fj\u00f6llum fyrst og fremst um tilraunir til a\u00f0 finna undirst\u00f6\u00f0u fyrir \u00feekkingu og \u00fe\u00e1 s\u00e9rstaklega fyrir \u00feekkingu \u00e1 hinum ytri heimi, \u00fe.e. \u00feekkingu sem byggist \u00e1 skynjun. Sko\u00f0anir sem ekki \u00fearfnast r\u00f6kstu\u00f0nings til a\u00f0 teljast \u00feekking eru stundum kenndar vi\u00f0 \u201ehi\u00f0 gefna\u201c (e. the given<\/em>). Til a\u00f0 kenning af \u00feessu tagi gangi upp \u00fearf a\u00f0 s\u00fdna fram \u00e1 a\u00f0 til s\u00e9u sko\u00f0anir sem uppfylla skilyr\u00f0i um a\u00f0 teljast \u00e1rei\u00f0anleg \u00feekking \u00e1n \u00feess a\u00f0 \u00fearfnast r\u00f6kstu\u00f0nings. \u00deetta verkefni hefur reynst erfitt \u2013 ef ekki \u00f3m\u00f6gulegt \u2013 m.a. vegna \u00feess a\u00f0 efahyggjan r\u00e6\u00f0ur yfir svo \u00f6flugum t\u00e6kjum. Eins eru \u00f6nnur og jafnvel alvarlegri heimspekileg vandam\u00e1l vi\u00f0 hugmyndina um hi\u00f0 gefna.<\/p>\n

        \u00cd \u00feessum hluta kynnumst vi\u00f0 l\u00edka samkv\u00e6mnishyggjunni og s\u00ed\u00f0an tilraun til a\u00f0 blanda saman bjarghyggju og samkv\u00e6mnishyggju \u00ed \u00fev\u00ed sem kalla m\u00e6tti bjargkv\u00e6mnishyggju<\/em> (e. foundherentism).<\/p>\n

        III: Skilgreining \u00feekkingar<\/strong><\/p>\n

        Eins og kom fram \u00ed inngangi er \u00feekking almennt skilgrein sem s\u00f6nn r\u00f6kstudd sko\u00f0un. \u00cd \u00feessu felst a\u00f0 til a\u00f0 eitthva\u00f0 geti talist \u00feekking \u00fearf \u00fea\u00f0 a\u00f0 uppfylla \u00ferj\u00fa skilyr\u00f0i:<\/p>\n

          \n
        1. \u00dea\u00f0 \u00fearf a\u00f0 vera sko\u00f0un;<\/li>\n
        2. \u00dea\u00f0 \u00fearf a\u00f0 vera satt;<\/li>\n
        3. \u00dea\u00f0 \u00fearf a\u00f0 vera r\u00f6kstutt.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

          \u00deessi skilyr\u00f0i voru alla jafna talin b\u00e6\u00f0i n\u00e6gjanleg og nau\u00f0synleg. \u00d6rstutt grein sem birtist \u00e1ri\u00f0 1963 eftir bandar\u00edska heimspekinginn Edmund Gettier s\u00fdndi fram \u00e1 a\u00f0 skilyr\u00f0in v\u00e6ru ekki n\u00e6gjanleg. Hann bj\u00f3 til d\u00e6mi sem s\u00fdndu a\u00f0 ma\u00f0ur g\u00e6ti haft sanna r\u00f6kstudda sko\u00f0un \u00e1n \u00feess a\u00f0 hafa \u00feekkingu. D\u00e6min vir\u00f0ast langst\u00f3tt en \u00feau ullu straumhv\u00f6rfum \u00ed \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0inni. Eftir Gettier var ekki lengur h\u00e6gt a\u00f0 ganga a\u00f0 skilgreiningu \u00feekkingar v\u00edsri. Vi\u00f0br\u00f6g\u00f0in voru af \u00fdmsu tagi. Sumir vildu b\u00e6ta fj\u00f3r\u00f0a skilyr\u00f0inu vi\u00f0, skilyr\u00f0i sem ger\u00f0i skilgreininguna \u00f3n\u00e6ma fyrir svok\u00f6llu\u00f0um Gettierd\u00e6mum. \u00deetta hefur reynst mikil \u00feraut en leitt til \u00feess a\u00f0 e\u00f0li \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ilegs r\u00f6kstu\u00f0nings hefur fengi\u00f0 mikla athygli (V. hluti fjallar n\u00e1nar um kenningar um \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ilegan r\u00f6kstu\u00f0ning).<\/p>\n

          \u00d6nnur lei\u00f0 til a\u00f0 m\u00e6ta Gettiervandanum er a\u00f0 hafna \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 \u00feekking \u00fearfnist skilgreiningar, \u00fe.e. a\u00f0 hafna \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 \u00feekking s\u00e9 greinanleg \u00ed meira grundvallandi \u00fe\u00e6tti. Ein sl\u00edk kenning segir a\u00f0 \u00feekking s\u00e9 hugtak sem \u00fearfnast ekki skilgreiningar, a\u00f0 \u00feekking s\u00e9 grundvallar hugar\u00e1stand. \u00deessi kenning er almennt k\u00f6llu\u00f0 \u00feekking fyrst<\/em> (e. knowledge first<\/em>) og f\u00e6r talsvert mikla athygli \u00feessi \u00e1rin.<\/p>\n

          IV: \u00deekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ileg lokun<\/strong><\/p>\n

          Ein lei\u00f0 til a\u00f0 reyna a\u00f0 m\u00e6ta efahyggjuvandanum er a\u00f0 hafna \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 r\u00f6kf\u00e6rslur sem lei\u00f0a til efahyggju s\u00e9u gildar. Ein sl\u00edk lei\u00f0 er a\u00f0 hafna \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 l\u00f6gm\u00e1li\u00f0 um \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ilega lokun<\/em> (e. epistemic closure<\/em>) eigi vi\u00f0 \u00ed d\u00e6miger\u00f0um efahyggjur\u00f6kum. \u00deau geta veri\u00f0 \u00ed \u00feessu formi:<\/p>\n

            \n
          1. Ef \u00e9g veit a\u00f0 \u00e9g sit h\u00e9r og les \u00fe\u00e1 veit \u00e9g a\u00f0 mig er ekki a\u00f0 dreyma.<\/li>\n
          2. \u00c9g veit ekki a\u00f0 mig er ekki a\u00f0 dreyma.<\/li>\n
          3. \u00deess vegna veit \u00e9g ekki a\u00f0 \u00e9g sit h\u00e9r og les.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

            R\u00f6kf\u00e6rsla af \u00feessu tagi hefur oft veri\u00f0 notu\u00f0 til a\u00f0 grafa undan m\u00f6guleikum \u00feekkingar. L\u00f6gm\u00e1li\u00f0 um \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ilega lokun segir a\u00f0 ef \u00e9g viti eitthva\u00f0 \u00fe\u00e1 viti \u00e9g l\u00edka \u00fea\u00f0 sem felst \u00ed \u00fev\u00ed sem \u00e9g veit. Af \u00feessu lei\u00f0ir af ef h\u00e6gt er a\u00f0 s\u00fdna fram \u00e1 a\u00f0 \u00e9g viti ekki \u00fea\u00f0 sem lei\u00f0ir af \u00fev\u00ed sem \u00e9g tel mig vita \u2013 \u00ed \u00feessu tilfelli ef \u00e9g veit ekki a\u00f0 mig s\u00e9 ekki a\u00f0 dreyma \u2013 \u00fe\u00e1 viti \u00e9g ekki \u00fea\u00f0 sem \u00e9g taldi mig upphaflega vita. Sumir heimspekingar hafa hafna\u00f0 l\u00f6gm\u00e1linu um \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ilega lokun og \u00fear me\u00f0 tali\u00f0 sig komast undan ni\u00f0urst\u00f6\u00f0u efahyggjunnar.<\/p>\n

            M\u00e1li\u00f0 sn\u00fdst um hvort vi\u00f0 \u00feurfum, vi\u00f0 gefnar a\u00f0st\u00e6\u00f0ur, a\u00f0 geta \u00fatiloka\u00f0 allt sem felst \u00ed \u00fev\u00ed sem vi\u00f0 teljum okkur vita e\u00f0a bara \u00fea\u00f0 sem kalla m\u00e1 a\u00f0ra vi\u00f0eigandi valkosti<\/em> (e. relevant alternatives<\/em>). Stundum g\u00e6ti skipt m\u00e1li a\u00f0 spyrja sig hvort mann g\u00e6ti veri\u00f0 a\u00f0 dreyma en alla jafna gerir \u00fea\u00f0 ekki (\u00feessi kennig l\u00edkist \u00fev\u00ed sem vi\u00f0 fj\u00f6llum um \u00ed kafla VIII. og kallast samhengishyggja<\/em> (e. contextualism<\/em>)).<\/p>\n

            V: Kenningar um \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ilegan r\u00f6kstu\u00f0ning<\/strong><\/p>\n

            Ein lei\u00f0 til a\u00f0 m\u00e6ta Gettiervandanum er a\u00f0 endurskilgreina hugtaki\u00f0 \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ilegan r\u00f6kstu\u00f0ning (e. epistemic<\/em> justification<\/em>). Almennt hefur veri\u00f0 liti\u00f0 svo \u00e1 a\u00f0 telji ma\u00f0ur sig vita \u00feurfi ma\u00f0ur sj\u00e1lfur a\u00f0 hafa a\u00f0gang a\u00f0 r\u00f6kstu\u00f0ningi fyrir sko\u00f0un sinni, a\u00f0 ma\u00f0ur hafi hugr\u00e6nan<\/em> (e. cognitive<\/em>) a\u00f0gang a\u00f0 r\u00f6kstu\u00f0ningnum. \u00deetta byggir m.a. \u00e1 \u00feeirri hugmynd a\u00f0 \u00fea\u00f0 felist \u00e1kve\u00f0in \u00e1byrg\u00f0 \u00ed \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 halda einhverju fram sem \u00feekkingu og a\u00f0 okkur beri skylda til a\u00f0 geta sagt (og hugsa\u00f0) af hverju vi\u00f0 teljum okkur vita eitthva\u00f0.<\/p>\n

            Kenningar sem segja a\u00f0 vi\u00f0 \u00feurfum a\u00f0 hafa hugr\u00e6nan a\u00f0gang a\u00f0 r\u00f6kstu\u00f0ningi fyrir sko\u00f0unum okkar\u00a0 (\u00fe.e. n\u00e6stum allar kenningar \u00ed \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0i fram \u00e1 8. \u00e1ratug s\u00ed\u00f0ustu aldar) hafa veri\u00f0 flokka\u00f0ar saman og kalla\u00f0ar innanhyggja<\/em> (e. internalism<\/em>). Gegn \u00feeim hafa veri\u00f0 \u00fer\u00f3a\u00f0ar kenningar sem kallast sameiginlega utanhyggja<\/em> (e. externalism<\/em>). \u00deekktasta utanhyggjukenningin er svok\u00f6llu\u00f0 \u00e1rei\u00f0anleikahyggja<\/em> (e. reliabilism<\/em>), en samkv\u00e6mt henni er \u00feekking sko\u00f0un sem hefur fengist vi\u00f0 \u00e1rei\u00f0anlegt ferli. D\u00e6mi um \u00e1rei\u00f0anlegt ferli er skynjun vi\u00f0 e\u00f0lilegar a\u00f0st\u00e6\u00f0ur. \u00dea\u00f0 sem gerir \u00feessar kenningar a\u00f0 utanhyggjukenningum er s\u00fa hugmynd a\u00f0 s\u00e1 sem telur sig vita \u00feurfi ekki nau\u00f0synlega a\u00f0 hafa hugr\u00e6nan a\u00f0gang a\u00f0 r\u00f6kstu\u00f0ningi fyrir \u00feeirri sko\u00f0un. \u00cd sta\u00f0 r\u00f6kstu\u00f0nings sem vi\u00f0 h\u00f6fum hugr\u00e6nan a\u00f0gang a\u00f0 h\u00f6fum vi\u00f0 \u00e1rei\u00f0anlegt ferli sem \u00fearf ekki a\u00f0 vera hugr\u00e6nt a\u00f0gengilegt. R\u00f6kstu\u00f0ningurinn er \u00ed \u00feessum skilningi fyrir utan okkur.<\/p>\n

            \u00c1rei\u00f0anleikahyggjan og a\u00f0rar utanhyggjukenningar hafa reynst \u00f6flugt t\u00e6ki til a\u00f0 m\u00e6ta efahyggjunni en \u00fe\u00e6r hafa l\u00edka valdi\u00f0 deilum um hvort \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0i s\u00e9 yfirh\u00f6fu\u00f0 verkefni fyrir heimspekina. Ferli sem lei\u00f0ir til \u00e1rei\u00f0anlegra sko\u00f0ana er, \u00ed skilningi utanhyggjunnar, alla jafna ekki ferli sem h\u00e6gt er a\u00f0 greina til fullnustu me\u00f0 a\u00f0fer\u00f0um heimspekinnar. Verkefni \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0innar f\u00e6rist \u00feannig fr\u00e1 heimspekinni yfir til annarra fr\u00e6\u00f0i- og v\u00edsindagreina. M\u00f6rgum finnst \u00feetta \u00ed lagi en \u00f6\u00f0rum ekki.<\/p>\n

            VI: Dygg\u00f0a\u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0i og gildi \u00feekkingar<\/strong><\/p>\n

            Ef vi\u00f0 gefum okkur a\u00f0 \u00e1rei\u00f0anlegt sko\u00f0anamyndandi ferli s\u00e9 mikilv\u00e6gt fyrir \u00feekkingu \u00fe\u00e1 hv\u00edlir \u00e1 okkur a\u00f0 greina hva\u00f0a ferli lei\u00f0a til \u00feekkingar (me\u00f0 \u00f6llum e\u00f0lilegum fyrirv\u00f6rum um r\u00e9ttar a\u00f0st\u00e6\u00f0ur o.s.frv.).\u00a0 Til \u00feess \u00feurfum vi\u00f0 a\u00f0 greina og meta hugr\u00e6na<\/em> h\u00e6fileikann<\/em> e\u00f0a hugr\u00e6nu<\/em> h\u00e6fnina<\/em> (e. cognitive<\/em> faculty<\/em>) sem myndar sko\u00f0unina. Ein lei\u00f0 til a\u00f0 n\u00e1lgast \u00fea\u00f0 er \u00fat fr\u00e1 dygg\u00f0ahugtakinu. \u00deetta er n\u00e1lgun dygg\u00f0a\u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0i<\/em> (e. virtue epistemology<\/em>) en samkv\u00e6mt henni er hugr\u00e6nt ferli \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ilega einhvers vir\u00f0i ef \u00fea\u00f0 er \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ilega dygg\u00f0ugt. Dygg\u00f0<\/em> (e. virtue<\/em> - stundum \u00fe\u00fdtt sem \u00e1g\u00e6ti) er eitthva\u00f0 sem ma\u00f0ur \u00feroskar me\u00f0 s\u00e9r \u00ed gegnum langan t\u00edma. \u00dea\u00f0 \u00e1 jafnt vi\u00f0 um si\u00f0fr\u00e6\u00f0ilegar sem \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ilegar dygg\u00f0ir. S\u00e1 sem \u00feroskar me\u00f0 s\u00e9r h\u00e6fileikann til a\u00f0 komast a\u00f0 \u00fev\u00ed hva\u00f0 er satt og r\u00e9tt \u00ed hverju m\u00e1li hefur \u00feroska\u00f0 me\u00f0 s\u00e9r \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ilega dygg\u00f0 e\u00f0a, me\u00f0 \u00f6\u00f0rum or\u00f0um, \u00e1rei\u00f0anlegt sko\u00f0anamyndandi ferli. Me\u00f0 \u00feessu m\u00f3ti svarar dygg\u00f0a\u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0in kr\u00f6funni um a\u00f0 vi\u00f0 h\u00f6fum \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ilegar skyldur en heldur jafnframt \u00ed megin\u00fe\u00e6tti \u00e1rei\u00f0anleikahyggjunnar.<\/p>\n

            Dygg\u00f0 er oft skilin me\u00f0 tilv\u00edsun \u00ed markmi\u00f0. S\u00fa manneskja er dygg\u00f0ug sem er g\u00f3\u00f0 \u00ed a\u00f0 n\u00e1 markmi\u00f0um s\u00ednum (getur \u00e1tt vi\u00f0 \u00ed si\u00f0fr\u00e6\u00f0i, \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0i og \u00e1 \u00f6\u00f0rum svi\u00f0um). N\u00fa m\u00e1 spyrja hvort \u00feekking s\u00e9 best til a\u00f0 n\u00e1 \u00e1kve\u00f0num \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ilegum markmi\u00f0um. G\u00e6ti s\u00f6nn sko\u00f0un ekki veri\u00f0 alveg eins g\u00f3\u00f0, e\u00f0a bara r\u00f6kstudd sko\u00f0un? E\u00f0a skilningur (e. understanding<\/em>), sem margir innan \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0innar telja mikilv\u00e6gari en \u00feekkingu \u00fev\u00ed me\u00f0 skilningi uppfyllum vi\u00f0 \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ileg markmi\u00f0 okkar betur en me\u00f0 \u00feekkingu.<\/p>\n

            VII: N\u00e1tt\u00faruleg \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0i og a priori<\/em> \u00feekking<\/strong><\/p>\n

            Ein lei\u00f0 \u00e1fram fyrir utanhyggju \u00ed \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0i er a\u00f0 l\u00edta \u00e1 manninn sem n\u00e1tt\u00farulegt fyrirb\u00e6ri sem myndar s\u00e9r sko\u00f0anir \u00e1 n\u00e1tt\u00farulegan h\u00e1tt. \u00cd sumum tilfellum er um \u00feekkingu a\u00f0 r\u00e6\u00f0a og \u00ed sumum ekki. Til a\u00f0 rannsaka \u00feetta n\u00e1tt\u00farulega sko\u00f0anamyndandi fyrirb\u00e6ri ber a\u00f0 beita a\u00f0fer\u00f0um sem vi\u00f0 almennt beitum \u00e1 n\u00e1tt\u00faruleg fyrirb\u00e6ri. \u00cd \u00feessu lj\u00f3si er e\u00f0lilegt a\u00f0 hafna \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0i eins og h\u00fan hefur almennt veri\u00f0 stundu\u00f0 og gera hana \u00ed sta\u00f0inn a\u00f0 hluta n\u00e1tt\u00faruv\u00edsinda. N\u00e1tt\u00farv\u00edsindalegar ranns\u00f3knir (t.d. \u00ed s\u00e1lfr\u00e6\u00f0i) \u00e1 sko\u00f0anamyndun eru mun betri a\u00f0fer\u00f0, a\u00f0 mati \u00feeirra sem a\u00f0hyllast n\u00e1tt\u00farulega \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0i<\/em> (e. naturalized epistemology<\/em>), en a\u00f0fer\u00f0 heimspekinga. \u00deekking er eins og hver \u00f6nnur n\u00e1tt\u00faruleg tegund sem ber a\u00f0 rannsaka sem sl\u00edka.<\/p>\n

            \u00deessi n\u00e1lgun \u00e1 \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ina felur \u00fdmislegt \u00ed s\u00e9r. Til d\u00e6mis getur falist \u00ed henni a\u00f0 vi\u00f0 ver\u00f0um a\u00f0 hafna a priori<\/em> (fyrirfram gefnum<\/em>) sannindum eins og grundvallarl\u00f6gm\u00e1lum hugsunarinnar. Ef \u00f6ll tegund \u00feekkingar er vi\u00f0fang n\u00e1tt\u00faruv\u00edsinda \u00fe\u00e1 er hending hver ni\u00f0ursta\u00f0a \u00feeirra ranns\u00f3kna ver\u00f0ur. \u00dea\u00f0 \u00e1 jafnt vi\u00f0 um a priori<\/em> \u00feekkingu sem a\u00f0ra \u00feekkingu og \u00fev\u00ed er \u00ed \u00fea\u00f0 minnsta fr\u00e6\u00f0ilega m\u00f6guleg ni\u00f0ursta\u00f0a ranns\u00f3kna a\u00f0 2+2 s\u00e9u eitthva\u00f0 anna\u00f0 en 4 e\u00f0a A ekki \u00fea\u00f0 sama og A.<\/p>\n

            N\u00e1tt\u00faruhyggja<\/em> (e. naturalism<\/em>) \u00ed \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0i r\u00e6\u00f0st gegn nokkrum h\u00f6fu\u00f0v\u00edgjum heimspekinnar, m.a. \u00e1herslu \u00e1 skynsemi og inns\u00e6i sem a\u00f0fer\u00f0 sem eigi a\u00f0 stu\u00f0la a\u00f0 hlutl\u00e6gum<\/em> (e. objective<\/em>) ni\u00f0urst\u00f6\u00f0um. Algeng gagnr\u00fdni \u00e1 hef\u00f0bundna heimspeki, s\u00e9rstaklega fr\u00e1 sj\u00f3narh\u00f3li feminisma, gengur \u00fat fr\u00e1 \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 afsta\u00f0a okkar s\u00e9 alltaf inngreypt<\/em> (e. embedded<\/em>), a\u00f0 vi\u00f0 s\u00e9um aldrei\u00a0laus vi\u00f0 ford\u00f3ma<\/em> (e. bias<\/em>). Ranns\u00f3kn \u00e1 manneskjunni sem sko\u00f0anamyndandi veru ver\u00f0ur a\u00f0 taka tillit til \u00feess. A\u00f0fer\u00f0afr\u00e6\u00f0i n\u00e1tt\u00faruv\u00edsindanna, s\u00e9rstaklega s\u00e1lfr\u00e6\u00f0innar, s\u00e9 mun betri til \u00feess en a\u00f0fer\u00f0ir hef\u00f0bundinnar heimspeki. \u00deetta kallar s\u00ed\u00f0an \u00e1 umr\u00e6\u00f0u um st\u00f6\u00f0u inns\u00e6is vi\u00f0 ranns\u00f3knir \u00ed \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0i.<\/p>\n

            VIII: \u00deekking og samhengi<\/strong><\/p>\n

            Byrjum me\u00f0 d\u00e6mi \u00far \u00feri\u00f0ja hluta (um \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ilega lokun). Eftirfarandi gild r\u00f6kf\u00e6rsla er d\u00e6miger\u00f0 innan efahyggjunnar:<\/p>\n

              \n
            1. Ef \u00e9g veit a\u00f0 \u00e9g sit h\u00e9r og les \u00fe\u00e1 veit \u00e9g a\u00f0 mig er ekki a\u00f0 dreyma.<\/li>\n
            2. \u00c9g veit ekki a\u00f0 mig er ekki a\u00f0 dreyma.<\/li>\n
            3. \u00deess vegna veit \u00e9g ekki a\u00f0 \u00e9g sit h\u00e9r og les.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

              Ein lei\u00f0 \u00fat er a\u00f0 hafna forsendu 1. \u00d6nnnur lei\u00f0 er a\u00f0 hafna forsendu 2. \u00deri\u00f0ja lei\u00f0in er a\u00f0 segja a\u00f0 \u00fe\u00f3 forsendur 1 og 2 s\u00e9u b\u00e1\u00f0ar sannar s\u00e9 ni\u00f0ursta\u00f0an ekki fengin (t.d. vegna \u00feess a\u00f0 \u201e\u00e9g veit\u201c hafi ekki s\u00f6mu merkingu \u00ed gegn). Samhengishyggja<\/em> (e. contextualism<\/em>) sam\u00feykkir \u00ed raun r\u00f6kf\u00e6rsluna en svarar efar\u00f6kunum me\u00f0 \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 halda \u00fev\u00ed fram a\u00f0 \u00feessi r\u00f6kf\u00e6rsla eigi ekki alltaf vi\u00f0. H\u00fan eigi vi\u00f0 \u00ed samhengi \u00fear sem efahyggja er til umr\u00e6\u00f0u en h\u00fan eigi ekki vi\u00f0 \u00ed hversdagslegu samhengi (h\u00fan \u00e1 t.d. ekki vi\u00f0 \u00feegar vi\u00f0 sitjum og lesum vi\u00f0 venjulegar a\u00f0st\u00e6\u00f0ur).<\/p>\n

              Lei\u00f0 samhengishyggjunnar er a\u00f0 sko\u00f0a forsendu 2 (forsendu sem gengur \u00fat \u00e1 a\u00f0 \u00fatiloka m\u00f6guleika sem grefur undan \u00f6\u00f0ru sem vi\u00f0 teljum okkur vita). Ef vi\u00f0 gerum svo r\u00edka kr\u00f6fu til \u00feekkingar a\u00f0 vi\u00f0 ver\u00f0um alltaf a\u00f0 gega \u00fatiloka\u00f0 \u00feessa forsendu (e\u00f0a a\u00f0ra samb\u00e6rilega) \u00fe\u00e1 er \u00fer\u00f6skuldurinn einfaldlega of h\u00e1r. Vi\u00f0 allar e\u00f0lilegar a\u00f0st\u00e6\u00f0ur \u00e1 hann a\u00f0 vera l\u00e6gri; vi\u00f0 allar e\u00f0lilegar a\u00f0st\u00e6\u00f0ur vitum vi\u00f0<\/em> a\u00f0 okkur er ekki a\u00f0 dreyma.<\/p>\n

              Verkefni samhengishyggjunnar er s\u00ed\u00f0an a\u00f0 skilgreina e\u00f0lilegar og \u00f3e\u00f0lilegar a\u00f0st\u00e6\u00f0ur (\u00fe.e. a\u00f0st\u00e6\u00f0ur sem vi\u00f0 \u00fatilokum alla jafna en myndu ella grafa undan \u00fev\u00ed sem vi\u00f0 teljum okkur vita).<\/p>\n

              IX: Vitnisbur\u00f0ur, minni og skynjun<\/strong><\/p>\n

              \u00cd \u00feessum hluta munum vi\u00f0 einbeita okkur a\u00f0 \u00feekkingu sem er fengin me\u00f0 vitnisbur\u00f0i<\/em> (e. testimony<\/em>). Langmest a\u00f0 \u00fev\u00ed sem venjuleg manneskja veit er fengi\u00f0 \u00ed gegnum vitnisbur\u00f0 (\u00feetta \u00e1 t.d. vi\u00f0 um \u00fea\u00f0 sem vi\u00f0 l\u00e6rum \u00ed sk\u00f3la). Hef\u00f0bundnar kenningar um \u00feekkingu \u00ed gegnum vitnisbur\u00f0 gera r\u00e1\u00f0 fyrir ke\u00f0ju \u00fear sem fullyr\u00f0ing um \u00fea\u00f0 sem vi\u00f0 teljum okkur vita (t.d. a\u00f0 \u00fea\u00f0 snj\u00f3i \u00e1 Egilst\u00f6\u00f0um) megi rekja aftur til \u201ebeinnar\u201c \u00feekkingar sem einhver hefur. Hlekkirnir \u00ed ke\u00f0junni ver\u00f0a s\u00ed\u00f0an allir a\u00f0 vera \u00e1rei\u00f0anlegir til a\u00f0 \u00feekking f\u00e1ist \u00ed gegnum vitnisbur\u00f0. Oftast hefur veri\u00f0 liti\u00f0 svo \u00e1 (\u00ed samr\u00e6mi vi\u00f0 innanhyggju) a\u00f0 ma\u00f0ur ver\u00f0i a\u00f0 vita a\u00f0 ma\u00f0ur geti treyst hlekkjunum \u00ed ke\u00f0junni (mamma, sem er \u00e1 Egilst\u00f6\u00f0um, hringdi og sag\u00f0i m\u00e9r fr\u00e1 snj\u00f3komu - \u00e9g treysti m\u00f6mmu og treysti \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 h\u00fan \u00feekki snj\u00f3komu). \u00deessi kenning um \u00feekking \u00ed gegnum vitnisbur\u00f0 hefur veri\u00f0 kenndi vi\u00f0 sm\u00e6ttarhyggju<\/em> (e. reductionism<\/em>).<\/p>\n

              \u00deekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ilegar kenningar um vitnisbur\u00f0 hafa fengi\u00f0 talsver\u00f0a athygli \u00e1 s\u00ed\u00f0ustu \u00e1rum. Spurningin um hvort traust<\/em> samr\u00fdmist gagnr\u00fdninni hugsun (e\u00f0a skynsemi almennt, sbr. klass\u00edska kenningu Cliffords) hefur veri\u00f0 tekin til umr\u00e6\u00f0u me\u00f0 n\u00fdjum kenningum um e\u00f0li skynsemi - sem innlimar \u00ed sta\u00f0 \u00feess a\u00f0 hafna trausti. Eins hefur athyglinni veri\u00f0 beint a\u00f0 vitnisbur\u00f0i sem sj\u00e1lfst\u00e6\u00f0ri uppsprettu \u00feekkingar me\u00f0 kenningum um a\u00f0 traust \u00e1 vitninu s\u00e9 ekki nau\u00f0synlegt til a\u00f0 vitnisbur\u00f0ur lei\u00f0i til \u00feekkingar og l\u00edka a\u00f0 vitni\u00f0 \u00feurfi ekki sj\u00e1lft a\u00f0 telja sig b\u00faa yfir \u00feekkingu til a\u00f0 geta bori\u00f0 vitni um eitthva\u00f0 sem lei\u00f0ir til \u00feekkingar hj\u00e1 \u00f6\u00f0rum.<\/p>\n

              \u00c1 m\u00e6likvar\u00f0a heimspekinnar er \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0i innan r\u00f6kgreiningarheimspeki frekar karll\u00e6g grein - og er \u00fe\u00e1 miki\u00f0 sagt. Athygli vekur \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 konur eru lei\u00f0andi \u00ed kenningum um vitnisbur\u00f0.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

              \u00deekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0i (e. epistemology) f\u00e6st vi\u00f0 e\u00f0li og m\u00f6guleika \u00feekkingar fr\u00e1 heimspekilegu sj\u00f3narmi\u00f0i. Vi\u00f0 getum raki\u00f0 s\u00f6gu \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0innar \u00e1 Vesturl\u00f6ndum \u00ed \u00fea\u00f0 minnsta aftur til Platons og verksins \u00dee\u00e6tetosar, \u00fear sem S\u00f3krates f\u00e6rir r\u00f6k fyrir \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 \u00feekking s\u00e9 meira en … Halda \u00e1fram a\u00f0 lesa →<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":414,"featured_media":0,"parent":811,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-975","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/975","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/414"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=975"}],"version-history":[{"count":33,"href":"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/975\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1360,"href":"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/975\/revisions\/1360"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/811"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/uni.hi.is\/esmari\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=975"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}